100-year Flood
A statistic that indicates the magnitude of flood which can be expected to occur on average with a frequency of once every 100 years at a given point or reach on a river. The 100-year flood is usually developed from a statistical distribution that is based on historical floods. This is also called a base flood.
100-year Flood Plain
The flood plain that would be inundated in the event of a 100-year flood.
88D
Doppler Radar currently used nationwide by the National Weather Service.
A Index
A daily index of geomagnetic activity derived as the average of the eight 3-hourly a indices.
ABNDT
Abundant
Accessory Cloud
A cloud which is dependent on a larger cloud system for development and continuance. Roll clouds, shelf clouds, and wall clouds are examples of accessory clouds.
Acid Precipitation
Precipitation, such as rain, snow or sleet, containing relatively high concentrations of acid-forming chemicals that have been released into the atmosphere and combined with water vapor; harmful to the environment.
Acid Rain
Rain containing relatively high concentrations of acid-forming chemicals that have been released into the atmosphere and combined with water vapor; harmful to the environment.
ACLD
Above Cloud Level
Active Dark Filament (ADF)
In solar-terrestrial terms, an Active Prominence seen on the Disk.
Active Longitude
In solar-terrestrial terms, the approximate center of a range of heliographic longitudes in which Active Regions are more numerous and more flare-active than the average.
ADAPTATION (ADAPTABLE) PARAMETER
Generally, data related to a specific WSR-88D unit. These data may consist of meteorological or hydrological parameters or of geographic boundaries, political boundaries, system configuration, telephone numbers (auto dial), or other like data. Such data may be generated at either a centralized location or locally at the WSR-88D unit.
ADAS
Automated Data Acquisition System
Additive Data
A group of coded remarks that includes pressure tendency, amount of precipitation, and maximum/minimum temperature during specified periods of time
ADDS
Aviation Digital Data Service
Adiabat
A line on a thermodynamic chart relating the pressure and temperature of a substance (such as air) that is undergoing a transformation in which no heat is exchanged with its environment.
Adiabatic
Changes in temperature caused by the expansion (cooling) or compression (warming) of a body of air as it rises or descends in the atmosphere, with no exchange of heat with the surrounding air.
Adiabatic Lapse Rate
The rate of decrease of temperature experienced by a parcel of air when it is lifted in the atmosphere under the restriction that it cannot exchange heat with its environment. For parcels that remain unsaturated during lifting, the (dry adiabatic) lapse rate is 9.8°C per kilometer.
Adiabatic Process
A process which occurs with no exchange of heat between a system and its environment.
Adirondack Type Snow Sampling Set
In hydrologic terms, a snow sampler consisting of a 5-foot fiberglass tube, 3 inches in diameter, with a serrated-edge steel cutter at one end and a twisting handle at the other. This sampler has a 60-inch snow depth capacity.
ADJ
Adjacent
ADPC
Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler
Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI)
A moderate resolution imaging system on the GOES and Himawari family of satellites.
Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service (AHPS)
A web-based suite of accurate and information-rich forecast products. They display the magnitude and uncertainty of occurrence of floods or droughts, from hours to days and months in advance. These graphical products are useful information and planning tools for many economic and emergency managers.
ADVCTN
Advection- Transport of an atmospheric property by the wind.
Advection
(Abbrev. ADVCTN)- Transport of an atmospheric property by the wind.
Advection Fog
A fog that forms when warm air flows over a cold surface and cools from below until saturation is reached.
ADVIS
In hydrologic terms, a program which combines the Antecedent Precipitation Index (API) method of estimating runoff with unit hydrograph theory to estimate streamflow for a headwater basin.
Advisory
(Abbrev. ADVY)- Highlights special weather conditions that are less serious than a warning. They are for events that may cause significant inconvenience, and if caution is not exercised, it could lead to situations that may threaten life and/or property.
ADVN
Advance
ADVY
Advisory - Highlights special weather conditions that are less serious than a warning. They are for events that may cause significant inconvenience, and if caution is not exercised, it could lead to situations that may threaten life and/or property.
AFD
Area Forecast Discussion - This National Weather Service product is intended to provide a well-reasoned discussion of the meteorological thinking which went into the preparation of the Zone Forecast Product. The forecaster will try to focus on the most particular challenges of the forecast. The text will be written in plain language or in proper contractions. At the end of the discussion, there will be a list of all advisories, non-convective watches, and non-convective warnings. The term non-convective refers to weather that is not caused by thunderstorms. An intermediate Area Forecast Discussion will be issued when either significant forecast updates are being made or if interesting weather is expected to occur.
AFRED
Abbreviation for the A Index for Fredericksburg.
AGDISP
A particular atmospheric disperison model used for treating the transport and diffusion of aerially sprayed pest control agents in agricultural applications.
AHD
Ahead
Air Mass Thunderstorm
Generally, a thunderstorm not associated with a front or other type of synoptic-scale forcing mechanism. Air mass thunderstorms typically are associated with warm, humid air in the summer months; they develop during the afternoon in response to insolation, and dissipate rather quickly after sunset. They generally are less likely to be severe than other types of thunderstorms, but they still are capable of producing downbursts, brief heavy rain, and (in extreme cases) hail over 3/4 inch in diameter.

Since all thunderstorms are associated with some type of forcing mechanism, synoptic-scale or otherwise, the existence of true air-mass thunderstorms is debatable.
Air Quality Model
Mathematical or conceptual model used to estimate present or future air quality.
Air Stagnation Advisory
This National Weather Service product is issued when major buildups of air pollution, smoke, dust, or industrial gases are expected near the ground for a period of time. This usually results from a stagnant high pressure system with weak winds being unable to bring in fresh air.
Albedo
Reflectivity; the fraction of radiation striking a surface that is reflected by that surface.
Along-slope Wind System
A closed, thermally driven diurnal mountain wind circulation whose lower branch blows up or down the sloping sidewalls of a valley or mountain. The upper branch blows in the opposite direction, thereby closing the circulation.
ALQDS
All Quadrants
AMD
Amend
Amplitude
The maximum magnitude of a quantity. Often used to refer to the maximum height of a wave.
Anchor Ice Dam
An accumulation of anchor ice which acts as a dam and raises the water level.
Aneroid Barometer
An instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure in which a needle, attached to the top of an evacuated box, is deflected as changes in atmospheric pressure cause the top of the box to bend in or out.
Annual Exceedance Probability (AEP)
The probability that a stream reach will have a flow of a certain magnitude in any given year.
Annual Flood
In hydrologic terms, the maximum discharge peak during a given water year (October 1 - September 30).
Antedecent Precipitation Index
(Abbrev. API) - an index of moisture stored within a drainage basin before a storm.
Anti-wind
The upper or return branch of an along-valley wind system, as confined within a valley, and blowing in a direction opposite to the winds in the lower altitudes of the valley.
Anvil Dome
A large overshooting top or penetrating top.
AP Index
In solar-terrestrial terms, an averaged planetary A Index based on data from a set of specific stations.
APD
On a buoy report, the average wave period (seconds) of all waves during the 20-minute period.
API Method
In hydrologic terms, a statistical method to estimate the amount of surface runoff which will occur from a basin from a given rainstorm based on the antecedent precipitation index, physical characteristics of the basin, time of year, storm duration, rainfall amount, and rainfall intensity.
Apparent Wind
The speed and true direction from which the wind appears to blow with reference to a moving point. Sometimes called RELATIVE WIND.
Aquiclude
In hydrologic terms, a formation which contains water but cannot transmit it rapidly enough to furnish a significant supply to a well or spring.
Arch Dam
A concrete arch dam is used in sites where the ratio of width between abutments to height is not great and where the foundation at the abutments is solid rock capable of resisting great forces. The arch provides resistance to movement. When combined with the weight of concrete (arch-gravity dam), both the weight and shape of the structure provide great resistance to the pressure of water.
Area Forecast Discussion
This National Weather Service product is intended to provide a well-reasoned discussion of the meteorological thinking which went into the preparation of the Zone Forecast Product. The forecaster will try to focus on the most particular challenges of the forecast. The text will be written in plain language or in proper contractions. At the end of the discussion, there will be a list of all advisories, non-convective watches, and non-convective warnings. The term non-convective refers to weather that is not caused by thunderstorms. An intermediate Area Forecast Discussion will be issued when either significant forecast updates are being made or if interesting weather is expected to occur.
Area Hydrologic Discussion (AHD)
A short range, episodic, discussion and graphic which highlights locations across the nation that may be impacted by rapid-onset flooding, using National Water Model and other guidance.
Area Wide Hydrologic Prediction System
(Abbrev. AWHPS) - A computer system which automatically ingests areal flash flood guidance values and WSR-88D products and displays this data and other hydrologic information on a map background.
Arid
An adjunctive applied to regions where precipitation is so deficient in quantity, or occurs at such times, that agriculture is impracticable without irrigation.
ARND
Around
Ashfall Advisory
An advisory issued for conditions associated with airborne ash plume resulting in ongoing deposition at the surface. Ashfall may originate directly from a volcanic eruption, or indirectly by wind suspending the ash.
ASOS IDs
Each Automated Surface Observing System an a four character identifier assigned to it. A list of stations currently active and available through the NWS website can be found here.
ASSOCIATED PRINCIPAL USER
A Principal User with dedicated communications to a WSR-88D unit.
Astronomical Dawn
The time at which the sun is 18 degrees below the horizon in the morning. Astronomical dawn is that point in time at which the sun starts lightening the sky. Prior to this time during the morning, the sky is completely dark.
Astronomical Dusk
This is the time at which the sun is 18 degrees below the horizon in the evening. At this time the sun no longer illuminates the sky.
ATDTDCS
Automated Tone Dial Telephone Data Collection System - Data collection system where cooperative observers collect precipitation, stage, and temperature data then transmit the data to the NWS ATDTDCS computer through the telephone lines. The ATDTDCS computer transmits the data to AFOS.
Atmospheric Boundary Layer
Same as Boundary Layer - in general, a layer of air adjacent to a bounding surface. Specifically, the term most often refers to the planetary boundary layer, which is the layer within which the effects of friction are significant. For the earth, this layer is considered to be roughly the lowest one or two kilometers of the atmosphere. It is within this layer that temperatures are most strongly affected by daytime insolation and nighttime radiational cooling, and winds are affected by friction with the earth's surface. The effects of friction die out gradually with height, so the "top" of this layer cannot be defined exactly.
Atmospheric Circulation Model
A mathematical model for quantitatively describing, simulating, and analyzing the structure of the circulation in the atmosphere and the underlying causes. Sometimes referred to as Atmospheric General Circulation Models or AGCMs.
Atmospheric Radiation
Infrared radiation (energy in the wavelength interval of 3- 80 micrometer) emitted by or being propagated through the atmosphere. It consists of both upwelling and downwelling components. Compare with terrestrial radiation.
Augmented report
A meteorological report prepared by an automated surface weather observing system for transmission with certified observers signed on to the system to add information to the report.
Automated Event Reporting Gage
(also see Tipping Bucket Rain Gage); for river stage gages, IFLOWS pressure transducer type gages can be programmed to report if water surface rises or falls by a predetermined amount.
Automated Report
A meteorological report prepared by an automated surface weather observing system for transmission, and with no certified weather observers signed on to the system.
Automated Surface Observing System
The ASOS program is a joint effort of the National Weather Service (NWS), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the Department of Defense (DOD). Completed in the mid-1990s, the ASOS systems serve as the nation's primary surface weather observing network. ASOS is designed to support weather forecast activities and aviation operations and, at the same time, support the needs of the meteorological, hydrological, and climatological research communities.
Avalanche Advisory
A preliminary notification that conditions may be favorable for the development of avalanches in mountain regions.
Back Door Cold Front
A cold front moving south or southwest along the Atlantic seaboard and Great Lakes; these are especially common during the spring months.
Back-building Thunderstorm
A thunderstorm in which new development takes place on the upwind side (usually the west or southwest side), such that the storm seems to remain stationary or propagate in a backward direction.
Back-sheared Anvil
[Slang], a thunderstorm anvil which spreads upwind, against the flow aloft. A back-sheared anvil often implies a very strong updraft and a high severe weather potential.
Backing Winds
Winds which shift in a counterclockwise direction with time at a given location (e.g. from southerly to southeasterly), or change direction in a counterclockwise sense with height (e.g. westerly at the surface but becoming more southerly aloft). The opposite of veering winds.

In storm spotting, a backing wind usually refers to the turning of a south or southwest surface wind with time to a more east or southeasterly direction. Backing of the surface wind can increase the potential for tornado development by increasing the directional shear at low levels.
Backwater Flooding
Hydrologic terms, upstream flooding caused by downstream conditions such as channel restriction and/or high flow in a downstream confluence stream.
BANDPASS FILTER
A filter whose frequencies are between given upper and lower cutoff values, while substantially attenuating all frequencies outside these values (this band).
Bandwidth
The frequency range between the lowest and highest frequencies that are passed through a component, circuit, or system with acceptable attenuation.
Banner Cloud
A cloud plume often observed to extend downwind behind isolated mountain peaks, even on otherwise cloud-free days.
Baroclinic leaf shield
A cloud pattern on satellite images - frequently noted in advance of formation of a low pressure center.
BASE DATA
Those digital fields of reflectivity, mean radial velocity, and spectrum width data in spherical coordinates provided at the finest resolution available from the radar.
Base Flood
In hydrologic terms, the national standard for floodplain management is the base, or one percent chance flood. This flood has at least one chance in 100 of occurring in any given year. It is also called a 100 year flood.
BASE PRODUCTS
Those products that present some representation of the base data. This representation may not necessarily be either in full resolution or depict the full area of coverage. Base products can be used to generate a graphic display or further processing.
Base Width
In hydrologic terms, the time duration of a unit hydrograph.
Basin Boundary
The topographic dividing line around the perimeter of a basin, beyond which overland flow (i.e.; runoff) drains away into another basin.
BD
Blowing Dust
BEAM WIDTH
Angular width of antenna pattern. Usually that width where the power density is one-half that of the axis beam. (Half-Power or 3 dB point)
Bed Load
In hydrologic terms, sand, silt, gravel, or soil and rock detritus carried by a stream on or immediately above its bed. The particles of this material have a density or grain size such as to preclude movement far above or for a long distance out of contact with the stream bed under natural conditions of flow.
Bermuda High
A semi-permanent, subtropical area of high pressure in the North Atlantic Ocean off the East Coast of North America that migrates east and west with varying central pressure. Depending on the season, it has different names. When it is displaced westward, during the Northern Hemispheric summer and fall, the center is located in the western North Atlantic, near Bermuda. In the winter and early spring, it is primarily centered near the Azores in the eastern part of the North Atlantic. Also known as Azores High.
BHND
Behind
Billow Cloud
A cloud consisting of broad parallel bands oriented perpendicular to the wind.
Blackbody
A hypothetical "body" that absorbs all of the electromagnetic radiation striking it - it does not reflect or transmit any of the incident radiation. A blackbody not only absorbs all wavelengths, but emits at all wavelengths with the maximum possible intensity for any given temperature.
Blackbody Radiation
The electromagnetic radiation emitted by an ideal blackbody adhering to the radiation laws; it is the theoretical maximum amount of electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths that can be emitted by a body at a given temperature.
BLD
Build
BLDUP
Buildup
Blizzard
(abbrev. BLZD)- A blizzard means that the following conditions are expected to prevail for a period of 3 hours or longer:
Blizzard Warning
Issued for winter storms with sustained or frequent winds of 35 mph or higher with considerable falling and/or blowing snow that frequently reduces visibility to 1/4 of a mile or less. These conditions are expected to prevail for a minimum of 3 hours.
Blocked Flow
Flow approaching a mountain barrier that is too weak or too stable to be carried over the barrier.
Blowing Dust or Sand
Strong winds over dry ground, that has little or no vegetation, can lift particles of dust or sand into the air. These airborne particles can reduce visibility, cause respiratory problems, and have an abrasive affect on machinery. A concentration reducing the visibility to ¼ mile or less often poses hazards for travelers.
Blowing Snow Advisory
Issued when wind driven snow reduces surface visibility, possibly, hampering traveling. Blowing snow may be falling snow, or snow that has already accumulated but is picked up and blown by strong winds.
BLZD
Blizzard- A blizzard means that the following conditions are expected to prevail for a period of 3 hours or longer:
BNDRY
Boundary
Border Ice
In hydrologic terms, an ice sheet in the form of a long border attached to the bank or shore.; shore ice.
Boundary Layer
In general, a layer of air adjacent to a bounding surface. Specifically, the term most often refers to the planetary boundary layer, which is the layer within which the effects of friction are significant. For the earth, this layer is considered to be roughly the lowest one or two kilometers of the atmosphere. It is within this layer that temperatures are most strongly affected by daytime insolation and nighttime radiational cooling, and winds are affected by friction with the earth's surface. The effects of friction die out gradually with increasing height, so the "top" of this layer cannot be defined exactly.

There is a thin layer immediately above the earth's surface known as the surface boundary layer (or simply the surface layer). This layer is only a portion of the planetary boundary layer, and represents the layer within which friction effects are more or less constant throughout (as opposed to decreasing with height, as they do above it). The surface boundary layer is roughly 10 meters thick (from the surface up to 10 m above the ground), but again the exact depth is indeterminate. Like friction, the effects of insolation and radiational cooling are strongest within this layer.
Bounded Weak Echo Region (BWER)
(Also known as a vault.) Radar signature within a thunderstorm characterized by a local minimum in radar reflectivity at low levels which extends upward into, and is surrounded by, higher reflectivities aloft. This feature is associated with a strong updraft and is almost always found in the inflow region of a thunderstorm. It cannot be seen visually.
Box Model
A computer model used to calculate air pollution concentrations. A box model is based on the assumption that pollutants are emitted into a box through which they are immediately and uniformly dispersed. The sides and bottom of the box are defined by the sidewalls and floor of the valley being studied.
Braided Stream
In hydrologic terms, characterized by successive division and rejoining of streamflow with accompanying islands. A braided stream is composed of anabranches.
BRD
Border
Breakup Date
In hydrologic terms, date on which a body of water is first observed to be entirely clear of ice and remains clear thereafter.
Breakup Period
In hydrologic terms, the period of disintegration of an ice cover.
Bright Band
A distinct feature observed by a radar that denotes the freezing level of the atmosphere. The term originates from a horizontal band of enhanced reflectivity that can result when a radar antenna scans vertically through precipitation. The freezing level in a cloud contains ice particles that are coated with liquid water. These particles reflect significantly more radiation (appearing to the radar as large raindrops) than the portions of the cloud above and below the freezing layer. The bright band can affect the ability of the NEXRAD algorithms to produce accurate rainfall estimates at far ranges because the algorithm may interpret reflectivity from the bright band as an overestimate of precipitation reaching the surface.
Bright Band
The enhanced radar echo of snow as it melts to rain.
Bright Surge on the Disk (BSD)
In solar-terrestrial terms, a bright gaseous stream (surge) emanating from the chromosphere.
Brisk Wind Advisory
A Small Craft Advisory issued by the National Weather Service for ice-covered waters.
Broadband
A method of signaling in which multiple signals share the bandwidth of the transmission by the subdivision of the bandwidth into channels based on frequency.
Bulk Richardson Number
A non-dimensional (i.e., no units) number relating vertical stability to vertical shear (generally, stability divided by shear). High values indicate unstable and/or weakly-sheared environments; low values indicate weak instability and/or strong vertical shear. Generally, values in the range of around 50 to 100 suggest environmental conditions favorable for supercell development.
Buttress Dam
Buttress dams are comprised of reinforced masonry or stonework built against concrete. They are usually in the form of flat decks or multiple arches. They require about 60 percent less concrete than gravity dams, but the increased form work and reinforcement steel required usually offset the savings in concrete. Many were built in the 1930's when the ratio of labor cost to materials was comparatively low. However, this type of construction is not competitive with other types of dams when labor costs are high.
BYD
Beyond
CAD
Cold Air Damming. The phenomenon in which a low-level cold air mass is trapped topographically. Often, this cold air is entrenched on the east side of mountainous terrain. Cold Air Damming often implies that the trapped cold air mass is influencing the dynamics of the overlying air mass, e.g. in an overrunning scenario. Effects on the weather may include cold temperatures, freezing precipitation, and extensive cloud cover
CADAS
Centralized Automated Data Acquisition System - a system of two minicomputers in NWSH.
Canyon Wind
A foehn wind that is channeled through a canyon as it descends the lee side of a mountain barrier.
Cap Cloud
A stationary cloud directly above an isolated mountain peak, with cloud base below the elevation of the peak.
Carbon Dioxide
CO2; a colorless and odorless gas which is the fourth most abundant constituent of dry air.
Carrington Longitude
A system of fixed longitudes rotating with the sun
Catalina Eddy
A Catalina Eddy (coastal eddy) forms when upper level large-scale flow off Point Conception interacts with the complex topography of the Southern California coastline. As a result, a counter clockwise circulating low pressure area forms with its center in the vicinity of Catalina Island. This formation is accompanied by a southerly shift in coastal winds, a rapid increase in the depth of the marine layer, and a thickening of the coastal stratus. Predominately these eddies occur between April and September with a peak in June. A typical Catalina eddy will allow coastal low clouds and fog to persist into the afternoon. A strong Catalina eddy may extend to 6000 feet and these clouds will move through the inland valleys and reach as far as Palmdale.
CD
cold
CDB
Computing Development Branch (NCEP)
CDC
Climate Diagnostic Center, the mission of the Climate Diagnostics Center (CDC) is to advance national capabilities to interpret the causes of observed climate variations, and to apply this knowledge to improve climate models and forecasts and develop new climate products that better serve the needs of the public and decision-makers.
CDD
Cooling Degree Days- A form of degree day used to estimate energy requirements for air conditioning or refrigeration. Typically, cooling degree days are calculated as how much warmer the mean temperature at a location is than 65°F on a given day. For example, if a location experiences a mean temperature of 75°F on a certain day, there were 10 CDD (Cooling Degree Days) that day because 75 - 65 = 10.
CDFNT
Cold Front
CDT
Central Daylight Time
Central Meridian Passage (CMP)
In solar-terrestrial terms, the passage of an Active Region or other feature across the longitude meridian that passes through the apparent center of the solar disk.
CENTROID
The center of mass of a storm.
Cfs-Day
In hydrologic terms, the volume of water discharged in twenty four hours, with a flow of one cubic foot per second is widely used; 1 cfs-day is 24 x 60 x 60 = 86,400 cubic feet, 1.983474 acre-feet, or 646,317 gallons. The average flow in cubic feet per second for any time period is the volume of flow in cfs-days.
Channel Lead
In hydrologic terms, an elongated opening in the ice cover caused by a water current.
Channeled High Winds
In mountainous areas or in cities with tall buildings, air may be channeled through constricted passages producing high winds. Santa Ana winds and winds through passes from the cold Alaskan interior to the sea are examples of these winds. Channeled high winds are local in nature but can be extremely strong. These winds generally occur in well-defined areas.
Chemistry Model
A computer model used in air pollution investigations that simulates chemical and photochemical reactions of the pollutants during their transport and diffusion.
Civil Dawn
The time of morning at which the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon. At this time, there is enough light for objects to be distiguishable and that outdoor activities can commence.
Civil Dusk
The time at which the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon in the evening. At this time objects are distinguishable but there is no longer enough light to perform any outdoor activities.
CLD
Cloud- A visible aggregate of minute water droplets or ice particles in the atmosphere above the Earth's surface.
Climate Diagnostics Bulletin
(CDB) - The monthly CPC Bulletin reports on the previous months' status of the ocean-atmosphere climate system and provides various seasonal ENSO-related outlooks. It is issued by the fifteenth of the month.
Climate Diagnostics Center
(CDC) - The mission of NOAA's Climate Diagnostics Center is to identify the nature and causes for climate variations on time scales ranging from a month to centuries.
Climate Model
Mathematical model for quantitatively describing, simulating, and analyzing the interactions between the atmosphere and underlying surface (e.g., ocean, land, and ice).
Climate Prediction Center
This Center is one of several centers under the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) part of the National Weather Service (NWS) in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The Center serves the public by assessing and forecasting the impacts of short-term climate variability, emphasizing enhanced risks of weather-related extreme events, for use in mitigating losses and maximizing economic gains.
Closed Basin
A basin draining to some depression or pond within its area, from which water is lost only by evaporation or percolation. A basin without a surface outlet for precipitation falling precipitation.
Closed Basin Lake Flooding
Flooding that occurs on lakes with either no outlet or a relatively small one. Seasonal increases in rainfall cause the lake level to rise faster than it can drain. The water may stay at flood stage for weeks, months, or years.
Closed Low
A low pressure area with a distinct center of cyclonic circulation which can be completely encircled by one or more isobars or height contour lines. The term usually is used to distinguish a low pressure area aloft from a low-pressure trough. Closed lows aloft typically are partially or completely detached from the main westerly current, and thus move relatively slowly (see Cutoff Low).
Cloud
(abbrev. CLD) A visible aggregate of minute water droplets or ice particles in the atmosphere above the Earth's surface.
Cloud Ceiling
Same as Ceiling; the height of the cloud base for the lowest broken or overcast cloud layer.
Cloud Condensation Nuclei
Small particles in the air on which water vapor condenses and forms cloud droplets.
Cloud Layer
An array of clouds whose bases are at approximately the same level.
Cloud Movement
The direction toward which a cloud is moving
Cloud Streets
Rows of cumulus or cumulus-type clouds aligned parallel to the low-level flow. Cloud streets sometimes can be seen from the ground, but are seen best on satellite photographs.
Cloud Tags
Ragged, detached cloud fragments; fractus or scud.
Cloudy
When 7/8ths or more of the sky is covered by clouds.
Coastal Flooding
Flooding which occurs when water is driven onto land from an adjacent body of water. This generally occurs when there are significant storms, such as tropical and extratropical cyclones.
Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Advisory
Minor flooding is possible (i.e., over and above normal high tide levels. Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Advisories are issued using the Coastal/Lakeshore Hazard Message (CFW) product.
Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Warning
Flooding that will pose a serious threat to life and property is occurring, imminent or highly likely. Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Warnings are issued using the Coastal/Lakeshore Hazard Message (CFW) product.
Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Watch
Flooding with significant impacts is possible. Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Watches are issued using the Coastal/Lakeshore Hazard Message (CFW) product.
Coastal/Lakeshore Flooding
(i) (Oceanic) Coastal Flooding is the inundation of land areas caused by sea waters over and above normal tidal action. This flooding may impact the immediate oceanfront, gulfs, bays, back bays, sounds, and tidal portions of river mouths and inland tidal waterways. (ii) Lakeshore Flooding is the inundation of land areas adjacent to one of the Great Lakes caused by lake water exceeding normal levels. Lakeshore flooding impacts the immediate lakefront, bays, and the interfaces of lakes and connecting waterways, such as rivers.
Coherent Radar
A radar that utilizes both signal phase and amplitude to determine target characteristics.
Cold Advection
Transport of cold air into a region by horizontal winds.
Cold Air Avalanche
Downslope flow pulsations that occur at more or less regular intervals as cold air builds up on a peak or plateau, reaches a critical mass, and then cascades down the slopes.
Cold Air Dam
A shallow cold air mass which is carried up the slope of a mountain barrier, but with insufficient strength to surmount the barrier. The cold air, trapped upwind of the barrier alters the effective terrain configuration of the barrier to larger-scale approaching flows.
Cold Air Damming (CAD)
The phenomenon in which a low-level cold air mass is trapped topographically. Often, this cold air is entrenched on the east side of mountainous terrain. Cold Air Damming often implies that the trapped cold air mass is influencing the dynamics of the overlying air mass, e.g. in an overrunning scenario. Effects on the weather may include cold temperatures, freezing precipitation, and extensive cloud cover
Cold Air Funnel
A funnel cloud or (rarely) a small, relatively weak tornado that can develop from a small shower or thunderstorm when the air aloft is unusually cold (hence the name). They are much less violent than other types of tornadoes.
Cold Front
A zone separating two air masses, of which the cooler, denser mass is advancing and replacing the warmer.
Cold Occlusion
A frontal zone formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front and, being colder than the air ahead of the warm front, slides under the warm front, lifting it aloft. Compare with warm occlusion.
Cold Pool
A region of relatively cold air, represented on a weather map analysis as a relative minimum in temperature surrounded by closed isotherms. Cold pools aloft represent regions of relatively low stability, while surface-based cold pools are regions of relatively stable air.
Collar Cloud
A generally circular ring of cloud that may be observed on rare occasions surrounding the upper part of a wall cloud. This term sometimes is used (incorrectly) as a synonym for wall cloud.
Colorado Low
A low pressure storm system that forms in winter in southeastern Colorado or northeastern New Mexico and tracks northeastward across the central plains of the U.S. over a period of several days, producing blizzards and hazardous winter weather.
Combined Seas
Generally referred to as SEAS. Used to describe the combination or interaction of wind waves and swells in which the separate components are not distinguished. This includes the case when swell is negligible or is not considered in describing sea state. Specifically, Seas2 = S2+W2 where S is the height of all swell components and W is the height of the wind wave components. When used, SEAS should be considered as being the same as the significant wave height.
Comma Cloud
A synoptic scale cloud pattern with a characteristic comma-like shape, often seen on satellite photographs associated with large and intense low-pressure systems.
Composite Hydrograph
A stream discharge hydrograph which includes base flow, or one which corresponds to a net rain storm of duration longer than one unit period.
Comprehensive Flare Index (CFI)
In solar-terrestrial terms, the indicative of solar flare importance.
COND
Condition
Condensation
In general, the physical process by which a vapor becomes a liquid or solid; the opposite of evaporation, although on the molecular scale, both processes are always occurring.
Condensation Funnel
A funnel-shaped cloud associated with rotation and consisting of condensed water droplets (as opposed to smoke, dust, debris, etc.).
Conditionally Unstable Air
An atmospheric condition that exists when the environmental lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate but greater than the moist adiabatic lapse rate.
Conduction
Flow of heat in response to a temperature gradient within an object or between objects that are in physical contact.
Cone of Depression
In hydrologic terms, the depression, roughly conical in shape, produced in a water table, or other piezometric surface, by the extraction of water from a well at a given rate. The volume of the cone will vary with the rate of withdrawal of water. Also called the Cone of Influence.
Confined Ground Water
In hydrologic terms, ground water held under an aquiclude or an aquifuge, called artesian if the pressure is positive.
Consolidated Ice Cover
In hydrologic terms, ice cover formed by the packing and freezing together of floes, brash ice and other forms of floating ice.
Convective Boundary Layer
The unstable boundary layer that forms at the surface and grows upward through the day as the ground is heated by the sun and convective currents transfer heat upwards into the atmosphere.
Convective Clouds
The vertically developed family of clouds are cumulus and cumulonimbus. The height of their bases range from as low as 1,000 feet to a bit more than 10,000 feet. Clouds with extensive vertical development are positive indications of unstable air. Strong upward currents in vertically developed clouds can carry high concentrations of supercooled water to high levels where temperatures are quite cold. Upper portions of these clouds may be composed of water and ice.
Convective Condensation Level
(abbrev. CCL)- The level in the atmosphere to which an air parcel, if heated from below, will rise dry adiabatically, without becoming colder than its environment just before the parcel becomes saturated. See Lifted Condensation Level (LCL).
Convective Overdevelopment
Convection that covers the sky with clouds, thereby cutting off the sunshine that produces convection.
Cooling Degree Days
(Abbrev. CDD) - A form of Degree Day used to estimate energy requirements for air conditioning or refrigeration. Typically, cooling degree days are calculated as how much warmer the mean temperature at a location is than 65°F on a given day. For example, if a location experiences a mean temperature of 75°F on a certain day, there were 10 CDD (Cooling Degree Days) that day because 75 - 65 = 10.
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
By international agreement, the local time at the prime meridian, which passes through Greenwich, England. Prior to 1972, this time was called Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) but is now referred to as Coordinated Universal Time or Universal Time Coordinated (UTC). It is a coordinated time scale, maintained by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM). It is also known a "Z time" or "Zulu Time".

More about UTC, and a table to convert UTC to your local time is posted at: http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/remote/radarfaq.htm#utc
Correlated Shear
An output of the mesocyclone detection algorithm indicating a 3-dimensional shear region (i.e. vertically correlated) that is not symmetrical.
County Warning and Forecast Area
The group of counties for which a National Weather Service Forecast Office is responsible for issuing warnings and weather forecasts.
Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean Model
Same as Coupled Model; in the context of climate modeling this usually refers to a numerical model which simulates both atmospheric and oceanic motions and temperatures and which takes into account the effects of each component on the other.
Coupled Model
In the context of climate modeling this usually refers to a numerical model which simulates both atmospheric and oceanic motions and temperatures and which takes into account the effects of each component on the other.
Crest Width
In hydrologic terms, the thickness or width of a dam at the level of the crest (top) of the dam. The term "thickness" is used for gravity and arch dams and "width" for other types of dams.
Critical Depth
In hydrologic terms, The depth of water flowing in an open channel or conduit, partially filled, corresponding to one of the recognized critical velocities.
Crop Moisture Index
In 1968, Palmer developed the index to assess short-term crop water conditions and needs across major crop-producing regions. This index is a useful tool in forecasting short-term drought conditions.
Cross-Valley Wind System
A thermally driven wind that blows during daytime across the axis of a valley toward the heated sidewall.
CSDRBL
Considerable
Cubic Feet per Second
(Abbrev. CFP) - In hydrologic terms, a unit expressing rates of discharge. One cubic foot per second is equal to the discharge through a rectangular cross section, 1 foot wide by 1 foot deep, flowing at an average velocity of 1 foot per second. It is also approximately 7.48 gallons per second.
Cumulus Buildups
Clouds which develop vertically due to unstable air. Characterized by their cauliflower-like or tower-like appearance of moderately large size
Curtain Drain
In hydrologic terms, a drain constructed at the upper end of the area to be drained, to intercept surface or ground water flowing toward the protected area from higher ground, and carry it away from the area. Also called an Intercepting Drain.
D
Dust
D Region
In solar-terrestrial terms, a daytime layer of the earth's ionosphere approximately 50 to 90 km in altitude.
Daily Climatological Report
As the name indicates, this climatological product is issued daily by each National Weather Service office. Most of the climatological data in this report are presented in a tabular form; however, some narrative statements may also be used in the product. The report is organized so that similar items are grouped together (i.e., temperature, precipitation, wind, sunrise and sunset times, etc.).
Daily Flood Peak
In hydrologic terms, the maximum mean daily discharge occuring in a stream during a given flood event.
DALR
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Dam
In hydrologic terms, any artificial barrier which impounds or diverts water. The dam is generally hydrologically significant if it is:
1. 25 feet or more in height from the natural bed of the stream and has a storage of at least 15 acre-feet.
2. Or has an impounding capacity of 50 acre-feet or more and is at least six feet above the natural bed of the stream.
Dam Failure
In hydrologic terms, catastrophic event characterized by the sudden, rapid, and uncontrolled release of impounded water.
DAMBRK
In hydrologic terms, the Dam Break Forecasting Model.
DAPM
In hydrologic terms, the Data Acquisition Program Manager.
Dark Surge on Disk (DSD)
In solar-terrestrial terms, dark gaseous ejections visible in H-alpha.
Dart Leader
A faint, negatively charged channel that travels more or less directly and continuously from cloud to ground.
Data Point
In the context of hydrologic observations, a location on a river/stream for which observed data is input to RFC or WFO hydrologic forecast procedures, or included in public hydro­logic products. Flood forecasts and warnings are not issued for data points (see /forecast point/).
DATACOL
In hydrologic terms, the Software System that supports RFC gateway functions.
DATANET
In hydrologic terms, it is the hydrologic Data Network Analysis Software.
Dawn
Same as Civil Dawn; the time of morning at which the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon. At this time, there is enough light for objects to be distiguishable and that outdoor activities can commence.
Day Length
Duration of the period from sunrise to sunset.
dBZ
Nondimensional "unit" of radar reflectivity which represents a logarithmic power ratio (in decibels, or dB) with respect to radar reflectivity factor, Z.
DCP
(Data Collection Platform) In hydrologic terms, an electronic device that connects to a river or rainfall gage that records data from the gage and at pre-determined times transmits that data through a satellite to a remote computer.
DDS
Data Distribution System.
Dead Storage
In hydrologic terms, the volume in a reservoir below the lowest controllable level.
Debris Cloud
A rotating "cloud" of dust or debris, near or on the ground, often appearing beneath a condensation funnel and surrounding the base of a tornado. This term is similar to dust whirl, although the latter typically refers to a circulation which contains dust but not necessarily any debris. A dust plume, on the other hand, does not rotate. Note that a debris cloud appearing beneath a thunderstorm will confirm the presence of a tornado, even in the absence of a condensation funnel.
Decadal
Occurring over a 10-year period, such as an oscillation whose period is roughly 10 years ("Pacific Decadal Oscillation").
Declination
The latitude that the sun is directly over at a given time. The declination is ~23°N at the summer solstice, ~23°S at the winter solstice, and 0° (over the equator) at the spring and autumn equinoxes.
Deep Percolation Loss
In hydrologic terms, water that percolates downward through the soil beyond the reach of plant roots.
Deep Seepage
In hydrologic terms, infiltration which reaches the water table.
Deep well
In hydrologic terms, a well whose pumping head is too great to permit use of a suction pump.
Deepening
A decrease in the central pressure of a surface low pressure system. The storm is intensifying.
Deformation Zone
The change in shape of a fluid mass by variations in wind, specifically by stretching and/or shearing. Deformation is a primary factor in frontogenesis (evolution of fronts) and frontolysis (decay of fronts).
Deformed Ice
In hydrologic terms, a general term for ice which has been squeezed together and forced upwards and downwards in places. Subdivisions are rated ice, ridge ice, hummocked ice, and other similar deformations.
Degradation
In hydrologic terms, the geologic process by means of which various parts of the surface of the earth are worn down and carried away and their general level lowered, by the action of wind and water.
Degree Day
A measure that gauges the amount of heating or cooling needed for a building using 65 degrees as a baseline. Electrical, natural gas, power, and heating, and air conditioning industries utilize heating and cooling degree information to calculate their needs. For more specific definitions and how to calculate degree days, see the definitions for Heating Degree Days and Cooling Degree Days.
Delta
In hydrologic terms, an alluvial deposit, often in the shape of the Greek letter "delta", which is formed where a stream drops its debris load on entering a body of quieter water.
Delta T
Change in temperature. 1) A simple representation of the mean lapse rate within a layer of the atmosphere, obtained by calculating the difference between observed temperatures at the bottom and top of the layer. Delta Ts often are computed operationally over the layer between pressure levels of 700 mb and 500 mb, in order to evaluate the amount of instability in mid-levels of the atmosphere. Generally, values greater than about 18 indicate sufficient instability for severe thunderstorm development. 2) The difference in temperature between the surface of a lake and 850mb, typically used to determine lake effect snow potential.
Dendrites
In hydrologic terms, thin branch-like growth of ice on the water surface.
Dendritic
In hydrologic terms, the form of the drainage pattern of a stream and it's tributaries when it follows a treelike shape, with the main trunk, branches, and twigs corresponding to the main stream, tributaries, and subtributaries, respectively, of the stream.
Dense Fog Advisory
Issued when fog reduces visibility to 1/8 mile or less over a widespread area. For marine products: An advisory for widespread or localized fog reducing visibilities to regionally or locally defined limitations not to exceed 1 nautical mile.
Dense Smoke Advisory
An advisory for widespread or localized smoke reducing visibilities to regionally or locally defined limitations not to exceed 1 nautical mile.
Density Current
In hydrologic terms, a flow of water maintained by gravity through a large body of water, such as a reservoir or lake, and retaining its unmixed identity because of a difference in density.
Density of Snow
In hydrologic terms, the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the volume which a given quantity of snow would occupy if it were reduced to water, to the volume of the snow. When a snow sampler is used, it is the ratio expressed as percentage of the scale reading on the sampler to the length of the snow core or sample.
DEP
Departure
Depletion Curve
In hydrologic terms, the part of the hydrograph extending from the point of termination of the Recession Curve to the subsequent rise or alternation of inflow due to additional water becomming available for stream flow.
Depression
A region of low atmospheric pressure that is usually accompanied by low clouds and precipitation. The term is also sometimes used as a reference to a Tropical Depression.
Depression Storage
In hydrologic terms, the volume of water contained in natural depressions in the land surface, such as puddles.
Depth of Runoff
In hydrologic terms, the total runoff from a drainage basin, divided by its area. For convenience in comparing runoff with precipitation, the term is usually expressed in inches of depth during a given period of time over the drainage area or acre-feet per square mile.
Derecho
(Pronounced day-RAY-cho), a widespread and usually fast-moving windstorm associated with convection. Derechos include any family of downburst clusters produced by an extratropical MCS, and can produce damaging straight-line winds over areas hundreds of miles long and more than 100 miles across.
Derived Products
Processed base data on the Doppler radar.
Desertification
A tendency toward more prominent desert conditions in a region.
Design Criteria
In hydrologic terms, the hypothetical flood used in the sizing of the dam and the associated structures to prevent dam failure by overtopping, especially for the spillway and outlet works.
Detention Basins
Structures built upstream from populated areas to prevent runoff and/or debris flows from causing property damage and loss of life. They are normally dry, but are designed to attenuate storm flows or detain mud/debris during and immediately after a runoff event. They have no spillway gates or valves and do not store water on a long-term basis. Typical detention times for storm flows are on the order of 24 to 72 hours, but may be as long as 5 to 10 days. Basins designed for detention of mud and rock debris are periodically excavated to maintain their storage capacity.
Detention Storage
In hydrologic terms, the volume of water, other than depression storage, existing on the land surface as flowing water which has not yet reached the channel.
Detritus
In hydrologic terms,
(1) the heavier mineral debris moved by natural watercourses, usually in bed-load form.
(2) the sand, grit, and other coarse material removed by differential sedimentation in a relatively short period of detention.
Developing Gale/Storm
In the high seas and offshore forecasts, a headline used in the warnings section to indicate that gale/storm force winds are not now occurring but are expected before the end of the forecast period.
Dew
Moisture that has condensed on objects near the ground, whose temperatures have fallen below the dewpoint temperature.
Dew Point
(Abbrev. DWPT) - A measure of atmospheric moisture. It is the temperature to which air must be cooled in order to reach saturation (assuming air pressure and moisture content are constant). A higher dew point indicates more moisture present in the air. It is sometimes referred to as Dew Point Temperature, and sometimes written as one word (Dewpoint).
Dew Point Depression
The difference in degrees between the air temperature and the dew point.
Dew Point Front
A narrow zone (mesoscale feature) of extremely sharp moisture gradient and little temperature gradient. It separates moist air from dry air. Severe weather can be associated with this front. It is also known as a "dryline" or "dry front".
DEWP
On a buoy report, the dewpoint temperature taken at the same height as the air temperature measurement.
DFUS
Diffuse
Diabatic
A process which occurs with the addition or loss of heat. The opposite of adiabatic. Meteorological examples include air parcels warming due to the absorption of infrared radiation or release of latent heat.
Diablo Wind
Similar to Santa Ana winds in southern California. These winds occur below canyons in the East Bay hills (Diablo range) and in extreme cases can exceed 60 mph. They develop due to high pressure over Nevada and lower pressure along the central California coast.
Diagnostic Model
A computer model used to calculate air pollution concentrations. A diagnostic model produces a wind field over an area by interpolating from actual wind observations.
Diamond Dust
A fall of non-branched (snow crystals are branched) ice crystals in the form of needles, columns, or plates.
Differential Motion
Cloud motion that appears to differ relative to other nearby cloud elements, e.g. clouds moving from left to right relative to other clouds in the foreground or background. Cloud rotation is one example of differential motion, but not all differential motion indicates rotation. For example, horizontal wind shear along a gust front may result in differential cloud motion without the presence of rotation.
Differential Rotation
In solar-terrestrial terms, the change in solar rotation rate with latitude. Low latitudes rotate at a faster angular rate (approx. 14 degrees per day) than do high latitudes (approx. 12 degrees per day).
Diffuse Ice
In hydrologic terms, poorly defined ice edge limiting an area of dispersed ice; usually on the leeward side of an area of floating ice.
Difluence
(or diffluence) - A pattern of wind flow in which air moves outward (in a "fan-out" pattern) away from a central axis that is oriented parallel to the general direction of the flow. It is the opposite of confluence.

Difluence in an upper level wind field is considered a favorable condition for severe thunderstorm development (if other parameters are also favorable). But difluence is not the same as divergence. In a difluent flow, winds normally decelerate as they move through the region of difluence, resulting in speed convergence which offsets the apparent diverging effect of the difluent flow.
DIR
1. Direction

2. On a buoy report, the ten-minute average wind direction measurements in degrees clockwise from true North.
Direct Flood Damage
In hydrologic terms, the damage done to property, structures, goods, etc., by a flood as measured by the cost of replacement and repairs.
Direct Hit
A close approach of a tropical cyclone to a particular location. For locations on the left-hand side of a tropical cyclone's track (looking in the direction of motion), a direct hit occurs when the cyclone passes to within a distance equal to the cyclone's radius of maximum wind. For locations on the right-hand side of the track, a direct hit occurs when the cyclone passes to within a distance equal to twice the radius of maximum wind. Compare indirect hit, strike.
Direct Runoff
In hydrologic terms, the runoff entering stream channels promptly after rainfall or snowmelt. Superposed on base runoff, it forms the bulk of the hydrograph of a flood.
Direct Solar Radiation
The component of solar radiation received by the earth's surface only from the direction of the sun's disk (i.e. it has not been reflected, refracted or scattered).
Directional Shear
The component of wind shear which is due to a change in wind direction with height, e.g., southeasterly winds at the surface and southwesterly winds aloft. A veering wind with height in the lower part of the atmosphere is a type of directional shear often considered important for tornado development.
Disappearing Solar Filament (DSF)
In solar-terrestrial terms, the sudden (timescale of minutes to hours) disappearance of a solar filament (prominence).
Discharge
In hydrologic terms, the rate at which water passes a given point. Discharge is expressed in a volume per time with units of L3/T. Discharge is often used interchangeably with streamflow.
Discharge Curve
In hydrologic terms, a curve that expresses the relation between the discharge of a stream or open conduit at a given location and the stage or elevation of the liquid surface at or near that location. Also called Rating Curve and Discharge Rating Curve.
Discharge Table
In hydrologic terms,

1. A table showing the relation between two mutually dependant quantities or variable over a given range of magnitude.

2. A table showing the relation between the gage height and the discharge of a stream or conduit at a given gaging station. Also called a Rating Table.
Disdrometer
Equipment that measures and records the size distribution of raindrops.
Disk
The visible surface of the sun (or any heavenly body) projected against the sky.
Dispersion
The process of separating radiation into various wavelengths.
Distribution (Hydro)Graph
In hydrologic terms, a unit hydrograph of direct runoff modified to show the proportions of the volume of runoff that occur during successive equal units of time.
Diurnal
Daily; related to actions which are completed in the course of a calendar day, and which typically recur every calendar day (e.g., diurnal temperature rises during the day, and diurnal falls at night).
Diurnal Cycles
Variations in meteorological parameters such as temperature and relative humidity over the course of a day which result from the rotation of the Earth about its axis and the resultant change in incoming and outgoing radiation.
Diurnal Temperature Range
The temperature difference between the minimum at night (low) and the maximum during the day (high).
Divergence
The expansion or spreading out of a vector field; usually said of horizontal winds. It is the opposite of convergence. Divergence at upper levels of the atmosphere enhances upward motion, and hence the potential for thunderstorm development (if other factors also are favorable).
Diversion
In hydrologic terms, the taking of water from a stream or other body of water into a canal, pipe, or other conduit.
Divide
In hydrologic terms, the high ground that forms the boundary of a watershed. A divide is also called a ridge.
Dividing Streamline
In the blocked flow region upwind of a mountain barrier, the streamline that separates the blocked flow region near the ground from the streamlines above which go over the barrier.
Dividing Streamline Height
The height above ground of the dividing streamline, as measured far upwind of a mountain barrier. See dividing streamline.
DMNT
Dominant
DMSH
Diminish
DNR
Department of Natural Resources
DNS
Dense
DNSTRM
Downstream
Dobson Unit
Unit used to measure the abundance of ozone in the atmosphere. One Dobson unit is the equivalent of 2.69/ x 1016 molecules of ozone/cm2.
DOC
Department of Commerce
DOH
Development and Operations Hydrologist
Doldrums
The regions on either side of the equator where air pressure is low and winds are light.
Domain
In air pollution modeling, the geographical area over which a simulation is performed.
Domestic Consumption
In hydrologic terms, the quantity, or quantity per capita, of water consumed in a municipality or district for domestic uses or purposes during a given period, generally one day. It is usually taken to include all uses included within the term Municipal Use of Water and quantity wasted, lost, or otherwise unaccounted for.
Domestic Use of water
In hydrologic terms, the use of water primarily for household purposes, the watering of livestock, the irrigation of gardens, lawns, shrubbery, etc., surrounding a house or domicile.
Doppler Radar
Radar that can measure radial velocity, the instantaneous component of motion parallel to the radar beam (i.e., toward or away from the radar antenna).
Down-Valley Wind
A thermally driven wind directed down a valley's axis, usually occurring during nighttime; part of the along-valley wind system.
Downburst
A strong downdraft current of air from a cumulonimbus cloud, often associated with intense thunderstorms. Downdrafts may produce damaging winds at the surface.
Downdraft
(Abbrev. DWNDFT) - A small-scale column of air that rapidly sinks toward the ground, usually accompanied by precipitation as in a shower or thunderstorm. A downburst is the result of a strong downdraft.
Downslope Flow
A thermally driven wind directed down a mountain slope and usually occurring at night; part of the along-slope wind system.
Downstream
In the same direction as a stream or other flow, or toward the direction in which the flow is moving.
Downstream Slope
In hydrologic terms, the slope or face of the dam away from the reservoir water. This slope requires some kind of protection (e.g.; grass) from the erosive effects of rain and surface flow
Downwash
A deflection of air downward relative to an object that causes the deflection.
Downwelling Radiation
The component of radiation directed toward the earth's surface from the sun or the atmosphere, opposite of upwelling radiation.
DP
1. Deep

2. Dew Point
DPD
On a buoy report, dominant wave period (seconds) is the period with the maximum wave energy.
DPNG
Deepening
DPTH
Depth
DPTR
Departure
DPVA
Differential Positive Vorticity Advection
DR
Direction
Drainage Area
In hydrologic terms, an area having a common outlet for its surface runoff (also see Watershed and Catchment Area).
Drainage Basin
In hydrologic terms, a part of the surface of the earth that is occupied by a drainage system, which consists of a surface stream or a body of impounded surface water together with all tributary surface streams and bodies of impounded surface water.
Drainage Density
In hydrologic terms, the relative density of natural drainage channels in a given area. It is usually expressed in terms of miles of natural drainage or stream channel per square mile of area, and obtained by dividing the total length of stream channels in the area in miles by the area in square miles.
Drainage Divide
In hydrologic terms, the boundary line, along a topographic ridge or along a subsurface formation, separating two adjacent drainage basins.
Drainer
A valley or basin from which air drains continuously during nighttime rather than becoming trapped or pooled.
Drains (Relief Wells)
In hydrologic terms, a vertical well or borehole, usually downstream of impervious cores, grout curtains or cutoffs, designed to collect and direct seepage through or under a dam to reduce uplift pressure under or within a dam. A line of such wells forms a "drainage curtain".
Drawdown
In hydrologic terms, the lowering of the surface elevation of a body of water, the water surface of a well, the water table, or the piezometric surface adjacent to the well, resulting from the withdrawl of water therefrom.
DRCTN
Direction
Dredging
In hydrologic terms, the scooping, or suction of underwater material from a harbor, or waterway. Dredging is one form of channel modification. It is often too expensive to be practical because the dredged material must be disposed of somewhere and the stream will usually fill back up with sediment in a few years. Dredging is usually undertaken only on large rivers to maintain a navigation channel.
DRFT
Drift
Drifting Ice
In hydrologic terms, pieces of floating ice moving under the action of wind and/ or currents.
Drifting Snow
Drifting snow is an uneven distribution of snowfall/snow depth caused by strong surface winds. Drifting snow may occur during or after a snowfall. Drifting snow is usually associated with blowing snow.
Drizzle
Precipitation consisting of numerous minute droplets of water less than 0.5 mm (500 micrometers) in diameter.
Drop-size Distribution
The distribution of rain drops or cloud droplets of specified sizes.
Drought
Drought is a deficiency of moisture that results in adverse impacts on people, animals, or vegetation over a sizeable area. NOAA together with its partners provides short- and long-term Drought Assessments.
Drought Assessments
At the end of each month, CPC issues a long-term seasonal drought assessment. On Thursdays of each week, the CPC together with NOAA National Climatic Data Center, the United States Department of Agriculture, and the National Drought Mitigation Center in Lincoln, Nebraska, issues a weekly drought assessment called the United States Drought Monitor. These assessments review national drought conditions and indicate potential impacts for various economic sectors, such as agriculture and forestry.
Drought Index
In hydrologic terms, computed value which is related to some of the cumulative effects of a prolonged and abnormal moisture deficiency. (An index of hydrological drought corresponding to levels below the mean in streams, lakes, and reservoirs.)
Dry Adiabat
A line of constant potential temperature on a thermodynamic chart.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
The rate at which the temperature of a parcel of dry air decreases as the parcel is lifted in the atmosphere. The dry adiabatic lapse rate (abbreviated DALR) is 5.5°F per 1000 ft or 9.8°C per km.
Dry Crack
In hydrologic terms, a crack visible at the surface but not going right through the ice cover, and therefore it is dry.
Dry Floodproofing
In hydrologic terms, a dry floodproofed building is sealed against floodwaters. All areas below the flood protection level are made watertight. Walls are coated with waterproofing compounds or plastic sheeting. Openings like doors windows, sewer lines and vents are closed, whether permanently, with removable shields, or with sandbags. The flood protection level should be no more than 2 or 3 feet above the top of the foundation because the buildings walls and floors cannot withstand the pressure of deeper water.
Dry Line
A boundary separating moist and dry air masses, and an important factor in severe weather frequency in the Great Plains. It typically lies north-south across the central and southern high Plains states during the spring and early summer, where it separates moist air from the Gulf of Mexico (to the east) and dry desert air from the southwestern states (to the west). The dry line typically advances eastward during the afternoon and retreats westward at night. However, a strong storm system can sweep the dry line eastward into the Mississippi Valley, or even further east, regardless of the time of day. A typical dry line passage results in a sharp drop in humidity (hence the name), clearing skies, and a wind shift from south or southeasterly to west or southwesterly. (Blowing dust and rising temperatures also may follow, especially if the dry line passes during the daytime. These changes occur in reverse order when the dry line retreats westward. Severe and sometimes tornadic thunderstorms often develop along a dry line or in the moist air just to the east of it, especially when it begins moving eastward.
Dry Line Bulge
A bulge in the dry line, representing the area where dry air is advancing most strongly at lower levels. Severe weather potential is increased near and ahead of a dry line bulge.
Dry Line Storm
Any thunderstorm that develops on or near a dry line.
Dry Microburst
A microburst with little or no precipitation reaching the ground; most common in semi-arid regions. They may or may not produce lightning. Dry microbursts may develop in an otherwise fair-weather pattern; visible signs may include a cumulus cloud or small Cb with a high base and high-level virga, or perhaps only an orphan anvil from a dying rain shower. At the ground, the only visible sign might be a dust plume or a ring of blowing dust beneath a local area of virga.
Dry Punch
[Slang], a surge of drier air; normally a synoptic-scale or mesoscale process. A dry punch at the surface results in a dry line bulge. A dry punch aloft above an area of moist air at low levels often increases the potential for severe weather.
Dry Slot
A zone of dry (and relatively cloud-free) air which wraps east- or northeastward into the southern and eastern parts of a synoptic scale or mesoscale low pressure system. A dry slot generally is seen best on satellite photographs.
Dry Thunderstorm
Generally a high-based thunderstorm when lightning is observed, but little if any precipitation reaches the ground. Most of the rain produced by the thunderstorm evaporates into relatively dry air beneath the storm cell. May also be referred to as "dry lightning".
Dry Weather Flow
In hydrologic terms, streamflow which results from precipitation that infiltrates into the soil and eventually moves through the soil to the stream channel. This is also referred to as baseflow, or ground water flow.
Dry-adiabatic
1. An adiabatic process in a hypothetical atmosphere in which no moisture is present. 2. An adiabatic process in which no condensation of its water vapor occurs and no liquid water is present.
DSA
Special Tropical Disturbance Statement
DSIPT
Dissipate
Dst Index
A geomagnetic index describing variations in the equatorial ringcurrent
DTRT
Deteriorate
Duration Curve
In hydrologic terms, a cumulative frequency curve that shows the percent of time during which specified units of items (e.g. discharge, head, power,etc.) were equaled or exceeded in a given period. It is the integral of the frequency diagram.
Duration of Ice Cover
In hydrologic terms, The time from freeze-up to break-up of an ice cover.
Duration of Sunshine
The amount of time sunlight was detected at a given point.
DURG
During
DURN
Duration
Dusk
Same as Civil Dusk; the time at which the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon in the evening. At this time objects are distinguishable but there is no longer enough light to perform any outdoor activities.
Dust Devil
A small, rapidly rotating wind that is made visible by the dust, dirt or debris it picks up. Also called a whirlwind, it develops best on clear, dry, hot afternoons
Dust Plume
A non-rotating "cloud" of dust raised by straight-line winds. Often seen in a microburst or behind a gust front.
Dust Storm
A severe weather condition characterized by strong winds and dust-filled air over an extensive area.
Dust Whirl
A rotating column of air rendered visible by dust.
DVLP
Develop
DVV
Downward Vertical Velocity (sinking air)
DWNDFT
Downdraft - A small-scale column of air that rapidly sinks toward the ground, usually accompanied by precipitation as in a shower or thunderstorm. A downburst is the result of a strong downdraft.
DWNSLP
Downslope
DWPT
Dew Point - A measure of atmospheric moisture. It is the temperature to which air must be cooled in order to reach saturation (assuming air pressure and moisture content are constant).
Dynamic Ice
In hydrologic terms, pressure due to a moving ice cover or drifting ice. Pressure occuring at movement of first contact termed Ice Impact Pressure
Dynamic Lifting
The forced uplifting of air from various atmospheric processes, such as weather fronts, and cyclones.
Dynamic Wave Routing Model (DWOPER)
A computerized hydraulic routing program whose algorithms incorporate the complete one-dimensional equations of unsteady flow
Dynamics
Generally, any forces that produce motion or effect change. In operational meteorology, dynamics usually refer specifically to those forces that produce vertical motion in the atmosphere.
DZ
Drizzle
E-19a, Abridged Report on River Gage Sta
In hydrologic terms, an abridged version of an E-19, an E-19a updates the E-19 as additional information, or changes occur at the station during the intervening five year period. An E-19a is to be completed anytime a significant change occurs at a forecast point. An E-19a is also used to take the place of an E-19 in documenting any gage history, or information of any non-forecast point (i.e; data point).
E-3, Flood Stage Report
In hydrologic terms, a form that a Service Hydrologist/ Hydrology Focal Point completes to document the dates in which forecast points are above flood stage, as well as the crest dates and stages. Discussion of the flood event must also be included in the E-5, Monthly Report of River and Flood conditions. An E-3 report is sent to Regional Headquarters, the appropriate RFC, as well as the Office of Hydrology (OH).
E-5, Monthly Report of River and Flood c
In hydrologic terms, a monthly narrative report covering flooding which occurred over the past month. Flood stage, flood crest and dates in which flooding occurred is covered within this report for each data point which was in flood. If the flooding involved a forecast point, an E-3 must be filled out as well. If no flooding has occurred within the past month, a climatic summary of the past month can be included as well as other interesting non-flood events, such as water supply, ice jams and the occurrence of drought. An E-5 report is sent to Regional Headquarters, the appropriate RFC, as well as the Office of Hydrology (OH).
E-7, Flood Damage Report
In hydrologic terms, a report to be completed anytime there is reported flood damage or loss of life as a direct result of flooding. An E-7 report is sent to Regional Headquarters, as well as the Office of Hydrology (OH).
EBND
Eastbound
Eddy
Swirling currents of air at variance with the main current.
EDT
Eastern Daylight Time
Effective Terrestrial Radiation
The difference between upwelling infrared or terrestrial radiation emitted from the earth and the downwelling infrared radiation from the atmosphere
Elevated Convection
Convection occurring within an elevated layer, i.e., a layer in which the lowest portion is based above the earth's surface. Elevated convection often occurs when air near the ground is relatively cool and stable, e.g., during periods of isentropic lift, when an unstable layer of air is present aloft.

In cases of elevated convection, stability indices based on near-surface measurements (such as the lifted index) typically will underestimate the amount of instability present. Severe weather is possible from elevated convection, but is less likely than it is with surface-based convection.
EMBDD
Embedded
ENDG
Ending
Energy Dissipator
In hydrologic terms, a structure which slows fast-moving spillway flows in order to prevent erosion of the stream channel.
Energy Helicity Index
An index that incorporates vertical shear and instability, designed for the purpose of forecasting supercell thunderstorms
Enhanced V
A pattern seen on satellite infrared photographs of thunderstorms, in which a thunderstorm anvil exhibits a V-shaped region of colder cloud tops extending downwind from the thunderstorm core. The enhanced V indicates a very strong updraft, and therefore a higher potential for severe weather. Enhanced V should not be confused with V notch, which is a radar signature.
Enhanced Wording
1. An option used by the SPC in tornado and severe thunderstorm watches when the potential for strong/violent tornadoes, or unusually widespread damaging straight-line winds, is high. The text that accompanies a watch of this type will include the line "THIS IS A PARTICULARLY DANGEROUS SITUATION."

2. Strong wording or emphasis used in a zone forecast issued by a National Weather Service Forecast Office highlighting a potential condition (e.g., "some thunderstorms may be severe").
ENHNCD
Enhanced
Ensemble Hydrologic Forecasting
In hydrologic terms, a process whereby a continuous hydrologic model is successively executed several times for the same forecast period by use of varied data input scenarios, or a perturbation of a key variable state for each model run. A common method employed to obtain a varied data input scenario is to use the historical meteorological record, with the assumption that several years of observed data covering the time period beginning on the current date and extending through the forecast period comprises a reasonable estimate of the possible range of future conditions.
ENSO Diagnostic Discussion
The CPC issues the ENSO Diagnostic Discussion around the middle of the month. The discussion addresses the current oceanic and atmospheric conditions in the Pacific and the seasonal climate outlook for the following one to three seasons.
Environment Canada
The Canadian federal government department responsible for issuing weather forecasts and weather warnings in Canada.
Environmental Temperature Sounding
An instantaneous or near-instantaneous sounding of temperature as a function of height. This sounding or vertical profile is usually obtained by a balloon-borne instrument, but can also be measured using remote sensing equipment.
Equilibrium Drawdown
In hydrologic terms, the ultimate, constant drawdown for a steady rate of pumped discharge.
Equilibrium Surface Discharge
In hydrologic terms, the steady rate of surface discharge which results from a long-continued, steady rate of net rainfall, with discharge rate equal to net rainfall rate
Eta Model
Now referred to as North Amercian Meso (NAM) is one of the operational numerical forecast models run at NCEP. The Eta is run four times daily, with forecast output out to 84 hours.
Evaporative Demand Drought Index (EDDI)
An experimental drought monitoring and early warning guidance tool. It examines how anomalous the atmospheric evaporative demand is for a given location and across a time period of interest.
EWD
Eastward
EXCLD
Exclude
Exclusive Flood Control Storage Capacity
In hydrologic terms, the space in a reservoir reserved for the sole purpose of regulating flood inflows to abate flood damage
Experimental Product
An experimental product is in the final stages of testing and evaluation. If the product proves accurate and valuable to users then the next step is to make it an operational product.
Explosive Deepening
A decrease in the minimum sea-level pressure of a tropical cyclone of 2.5 mb/hr for at least 12 hours or 5 mb/hr for at least six hours.
EXTD
Extend/Extended
Extended Forecast Discussion
This discussion is issued once a day around 2 PM EST (3 PM EDT) and is primarily intended to provide insight into guidance forecasts for the 3- to 5-day forecast period. The geographic focus of this discussion is on the United States (including Alaska and Hawaii). Although portions of this narrative will parallel the Hemispheric Map Discussion, a much greater effort is made to routinely relate the model forecasts and necessary modifications to weather forecasts, mainly in terms of temperature and precipitation.
Extraterrestrial Radiation
The theoretically-calculated radiation flux from the sun at the top of the atmosphere, before losses by atmospheric absorption.
Extreme Wind Warning
Extreme Wind Warning (EWW) inform the public of the need to take immediate shelter in an interior portion of a well-built structure due to the onset of extreme tropical cyclone winds. An EWW for extreme tropical cyclone winds should be issued when both of the following criteria are met: a. Tropical cyclone is a category 3 or greater on the Saffir Simpson hurricane scale as designated by NHC, CPHC or JTWC. b. Sustained tropical cyclone surface winds of 100 knots (115 mph) or greater are occurring or are expected to occur in a WFO’s county warning area within one hour.
Fall Wind
A strong, cold, downslope wind.
Federal Snow Sampler
In hydrologic terms, a snow sampler consisting of five or more sections of sampling tubes, one which has a steel cutter on the end. The combined snowpack measuring depth is 150 inches. This instrument was formerly the Mount Rose Type Snow Sampling Set.
Feeder Bands
Lines or bands of low-level clouds that move (feed) into the updraft region of a thunderstorm, usually from the east through south (i.e., parallel to the inflow). Same as inflow bands. This term also is used in tropical meteorology to describe spiral-shaped bands of convection surrounding, and moving toward, the center of a tropical cyclone.
Few Clouds
An official sky cover classification for aviation weather observations, descriptive of a sky cover of 1/8 to 2/8. This is applied only when obscuring phenomenon aloft are present--that is, not when obscuring phenomenon are surface-based, such as fog.
Field (Moisture) Capacity
The amount of water held in soil against the pull of gravity
Field Moisture Deficiency
The quantity of water, which would be required to restore the soil moisture to field moisture capacity.
Fill Dam
In hydrologic terms, any dam constructed of excavated natural materials or of industrial wastes
Fire Wind
A thermally driven wind blowing radially inward toward a fire, produced by horizontal temperature differences between the heated air above the fire and the surrounding cooler free atmosphere.
Firebrand
Any source of heat, natural or man made, capable of igniting wildland fuels; flaming or glowing fuel particles that can be carried naturally by wind, convection currents, or gravity into unburned fuels.
First Law of Thermodynamics
The law of physics that states that the heat absorbed by a system either raises the internal energy of the system or does work on the environment.
Flash Flood
A rapid and extreme flow of high water into a normally dry area, or a rapid water level rise in a stream or creek above a predetermined flood level, beginning within six hours of the causative event (e.g., intense rainfall, dam failure, ice jam). However, the actual time threshold may vary in different parts of the country. Ongoing flooding can intensify to flash flooding in cases where intense rainfall results in a rapid surge of rising flood waters.
Flash Flood Guidance
(FFG) Forecast guidance produced by the River Forecast Centers, often model output, specific to the potential for flash flooding (e.g., how much rainfall over a given area will be required to produce flash flooding).
Flash Flood Statement
(FFS) In hydrologic terms, a statement by the NWS which provides follow-up information on flash flood watches and warnings.
Flash Flood Table
In hydrologic terms, a table of pre-computed forecast crest stage values for small streams for a variety of antecedent moisture conditions and rain amounts. Soil moisture conditions are often represented by flash flood guidance values. In lieu of crest stages, categorical representations of flooding, e.g., minor, moderate, etc. may be used on the tables.
Flash Flood Warning
Issued to inform the public, emergency management, and other cooperating agencies that flash flooding is in progress, imminent, or highly likely.
Flash Flood Watch
Issued to indicate current or developing hydrologic conditions that are favorable for flash flooding in and close to the watch area, but the occurrence is neither certain or imminent.
Flashboards
In hydrologic terms, a length of timber, concrete, or steel placed on the crest of a spillway to raise the retention water level but which may be quickly removed in the event of a flood by a tripping device, or by deliberately designed failure of the flashboard or its supports
Float Recording Precipitation gage
In hydrologic terms, a rain gage where the rise of a float within the instrument with increasing rainfall is recorded. Some of these gages must be emptied manually, while others employ a self-starting siphon to empty old rainfall amounts.
Flood
Any high flow, overflow, or inundation by water which causes or threatens damage.
Flood Categories
Terms defined for each forecast point which describe or categorize the severity of flood impacts in the corres­ponding river/stream reach. Each flood category is bounded by an upper and lower stage (see Example 1). The severity of flooding at a given stage is not necessarily the same at all locations along a river reach due to varying channel/bank characteristics or presence of levees on portions of the reach. Therefore, the upper and lower stages for a given flood category are usually associated with water levels corresponding to the most significant flood impacts some­where in the reach. The flood categories used in the NWS are: *Minor Flooding* - minimal or no property damage, but possibly some public threat. *Moderate Flooding* - some inundation of structures and roads near stream. Some evacuations of people and/or transfer of property to higher elevations. *Major Flooding* - extensive inundation of structures and roads. Significant evacuations of people and/or transfer of property to higher elevations. *Record Flooding* - flooding which equals or exceeds the highest stage or discharge at a given site during the period of record keeping. Note: all three of the lower flood categories (minor, moderate, major) do not necessarily exist for a given forecast point. For example, at the level where a river reaches flood stage, it may be considered moderate flooding. However, at least one of these three flood categories must start at flood stage.
Flood Control Storage
In hydrologic terms, storage of water in reservoirs to abate flood damage
Flood Crest
Maximum height of a flood wave as it passes a certain location.
Flood Frequency Curve
In hydrologic terms,
(1) A graph showing the number of times per year on the average, plotted as abscissa, that floods of magnitude, indicated by the ordinate, are equaled or exceeded.
(2) A similar graph but with recurrence intervals of floods plotted as abscissa.
Flood Hazard Outlook (FHO)
A high Level graphical depiction and key messages highlighting the potential threat of inland flood hazards (flash, urban, small stream and riverine) and their associated impacts (catastrophic, considerable, and limited) for the next seven days.
Flood Inundation Mapping (FIM)
In the context of the National Water Model (NWM) FIM, the expected maximum inundation extent over a particular period of time derived using the Height Above Nearest Drainage (HAND) method. Stage heights are interpolated from the NWM discharge values using synthetic rating curves, and are rounded to the nearest foot.
Flood Loss Reduction Measures
In hydrologic terms, the strategy for reducing flood losses. There are four basic strategies. They are prevention, property protection, emergency services, and structural projects. Each strategy incorporates different measures that are appropriate for different conditions. In many communities, a different person may be responsible for each strategy.
Flood of Record
In hydrologic terms, the highest observed river stage or discharge at a given location during the period of record keeping. (Not necessarily the highest known stage.)
Flood Plain
In hydrologic terms, the portion of a river valley that has been inundated by the river during historic floods.
Flood Potential Outlook
(ESF on AFOS) (FPO for Acronym): In hydrologic terms, An NWS outlook that is issued to alert the public of potentially heavy rainfall that could send area rivers and streams into flood or aggravate an existing flood.
Flood Prevention
In hydrologic terms, measures that are taken in order to keep flood problems from getting worse. Planning, land acquisition, river channel maintenance, wetlands protection, and other regulations all help modify development on floodplains and watersheds to reduce their susceptibility to flood damage. Preventive measures are usually administered by the building, zoning, planning and/ or code enforcement offices of the local government.
Flood Problems
In hydrologic terms, problems and damages that occur during a flood as a result of human development and actions. Flood problems are a result from:
1) Inappropriate development in the floodplain (e.g., building too low, too close to the channel, or blocking flood flows);
2) Development in the watershed that increases flood flows and creates a larger floodplain, or;
3) A combination of the previous two.
Flood Profile
In hydrologic terms, a graph of elevation of the water surface of a river in flood, plotted as ordinate, against distance, measured in the downstream direction, plotted as abscissa. A flood profile may be drawn to show elevation at a given time, crests during a particular flood, or to show stages of concordant flows
Flood Routing
In hydrologic terms, process of determining progressively the timing, shape, and amplitude of a flood wave as it moves downstream to successive points along the river
Flood Stage
An established gage height for a given location above which a rise in water surface level begins to create a hazard to lives, property, or commerce. The issuance of flood (or in some cases flash flood) warnings is linked to flood stage. Not necessarily the same as bankfull stage.
Flood Statement (FLS)
In hydrologic terms, a statement issued by the NWS to inform the public of flooding along major streams in which there is not a serious threat to life or property. It may also follow a flood warning to give later information.
Flood Warning
(FLW) In hydrologic terms, a release by the NWS to inform the public of flooding along larger streams in which there is a serious threat to life or property. A flood warning will usually contain river stage (level) forecasts.
Flood Watch
Issued to inform the public and cooperating agencies that current and developing hydrometeorological conditions are such that there is a threat of flooding, but the occurrence is neither certain nor imminent.
Flood Wave
In hydrologic terms, a rise in streamflow to a crest and its subsequent recession caused by precipitation, snowmelt, dam failure, or reservoir releases
Flooded Ice
In hydrologic terms, ice which has been flooded by melt water or river water and is heavily loaded by water and wet snow.
Floodproofing
In hydrologic terms, the process of protecting a building from flood damage on site. Floodproofing can be divided into wet and dry floodproofing. In areas subject to slow-moving, shallow flooding, buildings can be elevated, or barriers can be constructed to block the water’s approach to the building. These techniques have the advantage of being less disruptive to the neighborhood. It must be noted that during a flood, a floodproofed building may be isolated and without utilities and therefore unusable, even though it has not been damaged.
Floodwall
In hydrologic terms, a long, narrow concrete, or masonry embankment usually built to protect land from flooding. If built of earth the structure is usually referred to as a levee. Floodwalls and levees confine streamflow within a specified area to prevent flooding. The term "dike" is used to describe an embankment that blocks an area on a reservoir or lake rim that is lower than the top of the dam.
Floodway
In hydrologic terms,
(1) A part of the flood plain, otherwise leveed, reserved for emergency diversion of water during floods. A part of the flood plain which, to facilitate the passage of floodwater, is kept clear of encumbrances.
(2) The channel of a river or stream and those parts of the flood plains adjoining the channel, which are reasonably required to carry and discharge the floodwater or floodflow of any river or stream.
Flow Duration Curve
In hydrologic terms, a cumulative frequency curve that shows the percentage of time that specified discharges are equaled or exceeded.
Fluid
Matter which flows; gas or liquid.
Forced Channeling
Channeling of upper winds along a valley's axis when upper winds are diverted by the underlying topography. Compare pressure-driven channeling.
Forecast Guidance
Computer-generated forecast materials used to assist the preparation of a forecast, such as numerical forecast models.
Forecast Periods
Official definitions for NWS products:

Today...............................Sunrise to sunset
This afternoon..................noon till 6 p.m.
This evening.....................6 p.m. till sunset
Tonight.............................sunset till sunrise
Tomorrow.........................sunrise to sunset of the following day
Forecast valid for
The period of time the forecast is in effect beginning at a given day, date and time, and ending at a given day, date and time.
Forward Flank Downdraft
The main region of downdraft in the forward, or leading, part of a supercell, where most of the heavy precipitation is.
Fountainhead
In hydrologic terms, the upper end of a confined-aquifer conduit, where it intersects the land surface.
Free Ground Water
In hydrologic terms, unconfined ground water whose upper boundary is a free water table
Freeboard
In hydrologic terms, the vertical distance between the normal maximum level of the water surface in a channel, resrvoir, tank, canal, etc., and the top of the sides of a levee, dam, etc., which is provided so that waves and other movements of the liquid will not overtop the confining structure
Freezeup date
In hydrologic terms, the date on which the water body was first observed to be completely frozen over
Freezing Drizzle
A drizzle that falls as a liquid but freezes into glaze or rime upon contact with the cold ground or surface structures.
Freezing Drizzle Advisory
Issued when freezing rain or freezing drizzle is forecast but a significant accumulation is not expected. However, even small amounts of freezing rain or freezing drizzle may cause significant travel problems.
Freezing Rain Advisory
Issued when freezing rain or freezing drizzle is forecast but a significant accumulation is not expected. However, even small amounts of freezing rain or freezing drizzle may cause significant travel problems.
Freezing Spray Advisory
An advisory for an accumulation of freezing water droplets on a vessel at a rate of less than 2 centimeters (cm) per hour caused by some appropriate combination of cold water, wind, cold air temperature, and vessel movement.
French Drain
In hydrologic terms, an underground passageway for water through the interstices among stones placed loosely in a trench
Friction Head
In hydrologic terms, the decrease in total head caused by friction
Frost Advisory
Issued during the growing season when widespread frost formation is expected over an extensive area. Surface temperatures are usually in the mid 30s Fahrenheit.
Frozen Dew
When liquid dew changes into tiny beads of ice. This occurs when dew forms and temperatures later drop below freezing.
Fugitive Dust
Dust that is not emitted from definable point sources such as industrial smokestacks. Sources include open fields, roadways, storage piles, etc.
Full-Physics Numerical Model
A computer model used to calculate air pollution concentrations. A full-physics numerical model uses a full set of equations describing the thermodynamic and dynamic state of the atmosphere and can be used to simulate atmospheric phenomena.
Funnel Cloud
A condensation funnel extending from the base of a towering cumulus or Cb, associated with a rotating column of air that is not in contact with the ground (and hence different from a tornado). A condensation funnel is a tornado, not a funnel cloud, if either a) it is in contact with the ground or b) a debris cloud or dust whirl is visible beneath it.
FWD
Forward
Gage Datum
A horizontal surface used as a zero point for measurement of stage or gage height. This surface usually is located slightly below the lowest point of the stream bottom such that the gage height is usually slightly greater than the maximum depth of water. Because the gage datum is not an actual physical object, the datum is usually defined by specifying the elevations of permanent reference marks such as bridge abutments and survey monuments, and the gage is set to agree with the reference marks. Gage datum is a local datum that is maintained indepen­dently of any national geodetic datum. However, if the elevation of the gage datum relative to the national datum (North American Vertical Datum of 1988 or National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929) has been determined, then the gage readings can be converted to elevations above the national datum by adding the elevation of the gage datum to the gage reading.
Gap Winds
Strong winds channeled through gaps in the Pacific coastal ranges, blowing out into the Pacific Ocean or into the waterways of the Inside Passage. The winds blow through low passes where major river valleys issue onto the seaways when strong east-west pressure gradients exist between the coast and the inland areas, with low pressure over the ocean.
Gaussian Plume Model
A computer model used to calculate air pollution concentrations. The model assumes that a pollutant plume is carried downwind from its emission source by a mean wind and that concentrations in the plume can be approximated by assuming that the highest concentrations occur on the horizontal and vertical midlines of the plume, with the distribution about these mid-lines characterized by Gaussian- or bell-shaped concentration profiles.
Gaussian Puff Model
A model used to calculate air pollution concentrations. The model assumes that a continuously emitted plume or instantaneous cloud of pollutants can be simulated by the release of a series of puffs that will be carried in a time- and space-varying wind field. The puffs are assumed to have Gaussian or bell-shaped concentration profiles in their vertical and horizontal planes.
GDR
On a buoy report, direction, in degrees clockwise from true North, of the GSP, reported at the last hourly 10-minute segment.
General Circulation Models
(GCMs) - These computer simulations reproduce the Earth's weather patterns and can be used to predict change in the weather and climate.
General Wind
Land management agency term for winds produced by synoptic-scale pressure systems on which smaller-scale or local convective winds are superimposed.
Geohydrology
In hydrologic terms, the branch of hydrology relating to subsurface, or subterranean waters.
Geomagnetic Field
The magnetic field observed in and around the earth. The intensity of the magnetic field at the earth's surface is approximately 0.32 gauss at the equator and 0.62 gauss at the north pole
Geostrophic Wind
A wind that is affected by coriolis force, blows parallel to isobars and whose strength is related to the pressure gradient (i.e., spacing of the isobars).
Glacier Dammed Lake
In hydrologic terms, the lake formed when a glacier flows across the mouth of an adjoining valley and forms an ice dam.
Glacier Wind
A shallow downslope wind above the surface of a glacier, caused by the temperature difference between the air in contact with the glacier and the free air at the same altitude. The glacier wind does not reverse diurnally like slope and along-valley wind systems.
GMDSS
(Global Maritime Distress and Safety System)- The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) is intended to provide more effective and efficient emergency and safety communications and disseminate Maritime Safety Information (MSI) to all ships on the world's oceans regardless of location or atmospheric conditions. MSI includes navigational warnings, meteorological warnings and forecasts, and other urgent safety related information GMDSS goals are defined in the International Convention for The Safety Of Life At Sea (SOLAS). The National Weather Service participates directly in the GMDSS by preparing meteorological forecasts and warnings for broadcast via NAVTEX and SafetyNET.
GND
Ground
GRAD
Gradient- A rate of change with respect to distance of a variable quantity, as temperature or pressure, in the direction of maximum change.
Gradient
(abbrev. GRAD) A rate of change with respect to distance of a variable quantity, as temperature or pressure, in the direction of maximum change.
Gradient High Winds
These high winds usually cover a large area and are due to synoptic-scale, extra-tropical low pressure systems.
Gradual Commencement
In solar-terrestrial terms, the commencement of a geomagnetic storm that has no well-defined onset
Gravity Dam
In hydrologic terms, a concrete structure proportioned so that its own weight provides the major resistance to the forces exerted on it.
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)
NASA satellites that detect small changes in the Earth’s gravitational field caused by the redistribution of water on and beneath the land surface.
Graybody
A hypothetical "body" that absorbs some constant fraction of all electromagnetic radiation incident upon it.
GRDL
Gradual
Great Lakes Weather Broadcast
(LAWEB) - A National Weather Service product containing an observation summary prepared to provide Great Lakes mariners with a listing of weather observations along or on the Lakes.
Grids
1) Squared off areas across the terrain used to define forecast areas. Often 5x5 or 2.5x2.5 kilometer in size. 2) Digitial forecast databases for meteorological elements, including temperature, wind direction, wind speed and others. Computer programs read these databases to create worded and graphical forecast products used by the public and others.
Ground Blizzard Warning
When blizzard conditions are solely caused by blowing and drifting snow.
Ground Clutter
A pattern of radar echoes from fixed ground targets (buildings, hills, etc.) near the radar. Ground clutter may hide or confuse precipitation echoes near the radar antenna.
Ground Fog
(abbrev. GF) Fog produced over the land by the cooling of the lower atmosphere as it comes in contact with the ground. Also known as radiation fog, and in parts of California as tule fog.
Ground Heat Flux
The flux of heat from the ground to the earth's surface; a component of the surface energy budget.
Ground receive sites
In hydrologic terms, a satellite dish and associated computer which receives signals from the GOES satellite, decodes the information, and transmits it to a another site for further processing. The GOES satellite ground-receive site is located at Wallops Island, VA; and the information is relayed to a mainframe computer at NWSH for processing.
Ground Stroke
The current that propagates along the ground from the point where a direct stroke of lightning hits the ground.
Ground Water
In hydrologic terms, water within the earth that supplies wells and springs; water in the zone of saturation where all openings in rocks and soil are filled, the upper surface of which forms the water table. Also termed Phreatic water.
Ground Water Divide
In hydrologic terms, A line on a water table where on either side of which the water table slopes downward. It is analogous to a drainage divide between two drainage basins on a land surface
Ground Water Flow
In hydrologic terms, streamflow which results from precipitation that infiltrates into the soil and eventually moves through the soil to the stream channel. This is also referred to as baseflow, or dry-weather flow
Ground Water Hydrology
The branch of hydrology that specializes in ground water; its occurrence and movements; its replenishment and depletion; the properties of rocks that control ground water movement and storage; and the methods of investigation and utilization of ground water
Ground Water Outflow
In hydrologic terms, the part of the discharge from a drainage basin that occurs through the ground water. The term "underflow" is often used to describe the ground water outflow that takes place in valley alluvium (instead of the surface channel) and thus is not measure at a gaging station.
Ground Water Overdraft
Pumpage of ground water in excess of safe yield.
Ground Water Runoff
That part of the runoff which has passed into the ground, has become ground water, and has been discharged into a stream channel as spring, or seepage water.
Grounded ice
In hydrologic terms, ice that has run aground or is contact with the ground underneath it
Growing Degree Day
The number of degrees that the average temperature is above a baseline value. For example, 40 degrees for canning purposes; 45 degree for potatoes; and 50 degrees for sweet corn, snap beans, lima beans, tomatoes, grapes, and field corn. Every degree that the average temperature is above the baseline value becomes a growing degree day. Agricultural related interests use growing degree days to determine planting times.
Gustnado
(or Gustinado) - A gustnado is a small, whirlwind which forms as an eddy in thunderstorm outflows. They do not connect with any cloud-base rotation and are not tornadoes. Since their origin is associated with cumuliform clouds, gustnadoes will be classified as Thunderstorm Wind events. Like dust devils, some stronger gustnadoes can cause damage.
H-component of the Geomagnetic Field
(Geomagnetic Elements) In solar-terrestrial terms, the components of the geomagnetic field at the surface of the earth. In SESC use, the northward and eastward components are often called the H and D components, where the D component is expressed in gammas and is derived from D (the declination angle) using the small angle approximation.
Hail Index
An indication of whether the thunderstorm structure of each storm identified is conducive to the production of hail.
Haines Index
This is also called the Lower Atmosphere Stability Index. It is computed from the morning (12Z) soundings from RAOB stations across North America. The index is composed of a stability term and a moisture term. The stability term is derived from the temperature difference at two atmosphere levels. The moisture term is derived from the dew point depression at a single atmosphere level. This index has been shown to be correlated with large fire growth on initiating and existing fires where surface winds do not dominate fire behavior. The Haines Indices range from 2 to 6 for indicating potential for large fire growth
Hanging (ice) dam
In hydrologic terms, a mass of ice composed mainly of frazil or broken ice deposited underneath an ice cover in a region of low flow velocity.
Hazardous Seas Warning
A warning for wave heights and/or wave steepness values meeting or exceeding locally defined warning criteria.
Hazardous Seas Watch
A watch for an increased risk of a hazardous seas warning event to meet Hazardous Seas Warning criteria but its occurrence, location, and/or timing is still uncertain.
Hazardous Weather Outlook
A narrative statement produced by the National Weather Service, frequently issued on a routine basis, to provide information regarding the potential of significant weather expected during the next 1 to 5 days.
Hazards Assessment
CPC's Hazards Assessment provides emergency managers, planners, forecasters and the public advance notice of potential hazards related to climate, weather and hydrological events.
HDD
Heating Degree Days- A form of degree day used to estimate energy requirements for heating. Typically, heating degree days are calculated as how much colder the mean temperature at a location is than 65°F on a given day. For example, if a location experiences a mean temperature of 55°F on a certain day, there were 10 HDD (Heating Degree Days) that day because 65 - 55 = 10.
HDRAIN
An Hourly Digital Rainfall Product of the WSR-88D.
Head
In hydrologic terms, the difference between the pool height and tailwater height. Usually expressed in feet of head, or in lbs./sq. inch
Head Loss
In hydrologic terms, the decrease in total head caused by friction
Head Race
In hydrologic terms, a channel which directs water to a water wheel; a forebay.
Headward Erosion
In hydrologic terms, erosion which occurs in the upstream end of the valley of a stream, causing it to lengthen its course in such a direction.
Headwater Basin
In hydrologic terms, a basin at the headwaters of a river. All discharge of the river at this point is developed within the basin.
Headwaters
In hydrologic terms, streams at the source of a river.
Heat Advisory
Issued within 12 hours of the onset of the following conditions: heat index of at least 105°F but less than 115°F for less than 3 hours per day, or nighttime lows above 80°F for 2 consecutive days.
Heat Index
The Heat Index (HI) or the "Apparent Temperature" is an accurate measure of how hot it really feels when the Relative Humidity (RH) is added to the actual air temperature.
Heating Degree Days
(abbrev. HDD) A form of degree day used to estimate energy requirements for heating. Typically, heating degree days are calculated as how much colder the mean temperature at a location is than 65°F on a given day. For example, if a location experiences a mean temperature of 55°F on a certain day, there were 10 HDD (Heating Degree Days) that day because 65 - 55 = 10.
Heavy Surf Advisory
An advisory issued by the National Weather Service for fast moving deep water waves which can result in big breaking waves in shallow water (the surf zone).
Height Above the Nearest Drainage (HAND)
A relative elevation methodology used in inundation mapping, which determines the height of every point on a land surface above the nearest stream reach to which it drains.
High Clouds
These clouds have bases between 16,500 and 45,000 feet in the mid latitudes. At this level they are composed of primarily of ice crystals. Some clouds at this level are cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus
High Flow Magnitude (HFM)
The magnitude of the maximum forecast streamflow conditions, measured in terms of annual exceedance probabilities.
High Latitudes
With specific reference to zones of geomagnetic activity, "high latitudes" refers to 50º to 80º geomagnetic.
High Resolution Rapid Refresh (HRRR)
A real-time 3-km resolution, hourly updated, cloud-resolving, convection-allowing atmospheric model, initialized by 3km grids with 3km radar assimilation.
High Risk (of severe thunderstorms)
Severe weather is expected to affect more than 10 percent of the area. A high risk is rare, and implies an unusually dangerous situation and usually the possibility of a major severe weather outbreak.
High Surf Advisory
A High Surf Advisory is issued when breaking wave action poses a threat to life and property within the surf zone. High surf criteria vary by region. High Surf Advisories are issued using the Coastal and Lakeshore Hazard Message (CFW) product.
High Wind
Sustained wind speeds of 40 mph or greater lasting for 1 hour or longer, or winds of 58 mph or greater for any duration.
High Wind Advisory
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when high wind speeds may pose a hazard. The criteria for this advisory varies from state to state. In Michigan, the criteria is sustained non-convective (not related to thunderstorms) winds greater than or equal to 30 mph lasting for one hour or longer, or winds greater than or equal to 45 mph for any duration.
High Wind Warning
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when high wind speeds may pose a hazard or is life threatening. The criteria for this warning varies from state to state. In Michigan, the criteria is sustained non-convective (not related to thunderstorms) winds greater than or equal to 40 mph lasting for one hour or longer, or winds greater than or equal to 58 mph for any duration.
High Wind Watch
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when there is the potential of high wind speeds developing that may pose a hazard or is life threatening. The criteria for this watch varies from state to state. In Michigan, the criteria is the potential for sustained non-convective (not related to thunderstorms) winds greater than or equal to 40 mph and/or gusts greater than or equal to 58 mph.
High-Speed Stream
In solar-terrestrial terms, a feature of the solar wind having velocities that are about double average solar wind values.
HMD
(Hemispheric Map Discussion)- This discussion is issued once a day around 1 PM EST (2 PM EDT) and is primarily intended to provide insight into the hemispheric circulation patterns over the next 5 days. This includes a discussion of the 5-day mean circulation pattern. Comparisons, differences, and continuity among the numerical models are highlighted, and preferred solutions are proposed with an explanation of why a solution is preferred. This includes any reasons why the preferred solution differs from any model. In cases where certain models are not universally available, an attempt will be made to describe that model's solution to an extent that a reader can understand it's important aspects.
HND
Hundred
Hodograph
A polar coordinate graph which shows the vertical wind profile of the lowest 7000 meters of the atmosphere. These plots are used to determine the advection patterns aloft, whether a thunderstorm will rotate, and the type of thunderstorms that you will likely see that day.
Hourly Precipitation Data (HPD)
It contains data on nearly 3,000 hourly precipitation stations (National Weather Service, Federal Aviation Administration, and cooperative observer stations) in inches to tenths or inches to hundredths at local standard time. HPD includes maximum precipitation for nine (9) time periods from 15 minutes to 24 hours, for selected stations.
HSA (Hydrologic Service Area)
A geographical area assigned to Weather Service Forecast Office's/Weather Forecast Office's that embraces one or more rivers.
Humidity
Generally, a measure of the water vapor content of the air. Popularly, it is used synonymously with relative humidity.
Humidity Recovery
The change in relative humidity over a given period of time; generally between late evening and sunrise. The moisture change in the fine fuels during this period is directly related to the amount of humidity recovery.
Hummocked Ice
In hydrologic terms, ice piled haphazardly one piece over another to form an uneven surface.
Hurricane Force Wind Warning
A warning for sustained winds, or frequent gusts, of 64 knots (74 mph) or greater, either predicted or occurring, and not directly associated with a tropical cyclone.
Hurricane Force Wind Watch
A watch for an increased risk of a hurricane force wind event for sustained surface winds, or frequent gusts, of 34 knots 64 knots (74 mph) or greater, but its occurrence, location, and/or timing is still uncertain.
Hyder Flare
In solar-terrestrial terms, a filiment-associated two-ribbon flare, often occurring in spotless regions. The flare presumably results from the impact on the chromosphere of infalling filament material.
Hydraulic Fill Dam
In hydrologic terms, a dam constructed of materials, often dredged, that are conveyed and placed by suspension in flowing water
Hydraulic Flow
Atmospheric flow that is similar in character to the flow of water over an obstacle.
Hydraulic Grade Line
In hydrologic terms, a line whose plotted ordinate position represents the sum of pressure head plus elevation head for the various positions along a given fluid flow path, such as along a pipeline or a ground water streamline.
Hydraulic Head
In hydrologic terms,
(1) The height of the free surface of a body of water above a given point beneath the surface.
(2) The height of the water level at the headworks, or an upstream point, of a waterway, and the water surface at a given point downstream.
(3) The height of a hydraulic grade line above the center line of a pressure pipe, at a given point.
Hydraulic Jump
A steady disturbance in the lee of a mountain, where the airflow passing over the mountain suddenly changes from a region of low depth and high velocity to a region of high depth and low velocity.
Hydraulic Permeability
In hydrologic terms, the flow of water through a unit cross-sectional area of soil normal to the direction of flow when the hydraulic gradient is unity.
Hydro­meteorology
An inter­disci­plinary science involving the study and analysis of the inter­relation­ships between the atmo­spheric and land phases of water as it moves through the hydro­logic cycle.
Hydrograph
In hydrologic terms, a graph showing the water level (stage), discharge, or other property of a river volume with respect to time.
Hydrograph Separation
In hydrologic terms, the process where the storm hydrograph is separated into baseflow components and surface runoff components.
Hydrographic Survey
In hydrologic terms, an instrumental survey to measure and determine characteristics of streams and other bodies of water within an area, including such things as location, areal extent, and depth of water in lakes or the ocean; the width, depth, and course of streams; position and elevation of high water marks; location and depth of wells, etc.
Hydrologic Budget
In hydrologic terms, an accounting of the inflow to, outflow from, and storage in, a hydrologic unit, such as a drainage basin, aquifer, soil zone, lake, reservoir, or irrigation project.
Hydrologic Cycle
The description of the transport of water substance between the earth, the atmosphere, and the seas.
or
In hydrologic terms, the natural pathway water follows as it changes between liquid, solid, and gaseous states.
Hydrologic Ensemble Forecast System (HEFS)
A probabilistic forecast tool with the goals to provide hydrologic forecasts including an analysis of “probable outcomes” and to minimize biases in the atmospheric models and in the hydrologic models.
Hydrologic Equation
In hydrologic terms, the water inventory equation (Inflow = Outflow + Change in Storage) which expresses the basic principle that during a given time interval the total inflow to an area must equal the total outflow plus the net change in storage.
Hydrologic Model
In hydrologic terms, a conceptual or physically-based procedure for numerically simulating a process or processes which occur in a watershed.
Hydrologic Service Area
HSA. A geographical area assigned to Weather Service Forecast Office's/Weather Forecast Office's that embraces one or more rivers.
Hydrology
The scientific study of the waters of the earth, especially with relation to the effects of precipitation and evaporation upon the occurrence and character of water on or below the land surface.
Hydrometeor
A particle of condensed water (liquid, snow, ice, graupel, hail) in the atmosphere.
Hydrometeorologists
In hydrologic terms, individuals who have the combined knowledge in the fields of both meteorology and hydrology which enables them to study and solve hydrologic problems where meteorology is a factor.
Hydrometeorology
An inter­disci­plinary science involving the study and analysis of the inter­relation­ships between the atmo­spheric and land phases of water as it moves through the hydro­logic cycle.
Hydrostatic Head
In hydrologic terms, a measure of pressure at a given point in a liquid in terms of the vertical height of a column of the same liquid which would produce the same pressure
Ice Bridge
In hydrologic terms, a continuous ice cover of limited size extending from shore to shore like a bridge.
Icelandic Low
A semi-permanent, subpolar area of low pressure in the North Atlantic Ocean. Because of its broad area and range of central pressure, it is an area where migratory lows tend to slow down and deepen. It is strongest during a Northern Hemisphere winter and early spring, centered over Iceland and southern Greenland, and is the dominate weather feature in the area. During the summer, it is weaker, less intense, and might divide into two parts, one west of Iceland, the other over the Davis Strait between Greenland and Baffin Island. Then the Azores or Bermuda High becomes the dominate weather feature in the North Atlantic.
Ideal Gas Laws
The thermodynamic laws applying to perfect gases.
In-Cloud Lightning
(abbrev. IC) Lightning that takes place within the cloud.
Inch-Degrees
The product of rainfall (in inches) multiplied by the temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) above freezing. Used as a measure of the snowmelting capacity of rainfall.
INDC
Indicate
Index of Wetness
The ratio of precipitation for a given year over the mean annual precipitation.
Indirect Hit
Generally refers to locations that do not experience a direct hit from a tropical cyclone, but do experience hurricane force winds (either sustained or gusts) or tides of at least 4 feet above normal.
Industrial Consumption
The quantity of water consumed in a municipality or district for mechanical, trade, and manufacturing purposes, in a given period, generally one day. The per capita use is generally based on the total population of the locality, municipality, or district.
Infiltration Index
In hydrologic terms, an average rate of infiltration, in inches per hour, equal to the average rate of rainfall such as that the volume of rainfall at greater rates equals the total direct runoff.
Inflow Bands
Bands of low clouds, arranged parallel to the low-level winds and moving into or toward a thunderstorm. They may indicate the strength of the inflow of moist air into the storm, and, hence, its potential severity. Spotters should be especially wary of inflow bands that are curved in a manner suggesting cyclonic rotation; this pattern may indicate the presence of a mesocyclone
Infrared Satellite Imagery
This satellite imagery senses surface and cloud top temperatures by measuring the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted from these objects. This energy is called "infrared". High clouds are very cold, so they appear white. Mid-level clouds are somewhat warmer, so they will be a light gray shade. Low cloud are warmer still, so they appear as a dark shade of gray or black. Often, low clouds are the same temperature as the surrounding terrain and cannot be distinguished at all. The satellite picks up this infrared energy between 10.5 and 12.6 micrometer (um) channels.
Initial Detention
In hydrologic terms, the volume of water on the ground, either in depressions or in transit, at the time active runoff begins.
Inland freshwater wetlands
In hydrologic terms, swamps, marshes, and bogs found inland beyond the coastal saltwater wetlands.
INLD
Inland
Intangible Flood Damage
In hydrologic terms, estimates of the damage done by disruption of business, danger to health, shock, and loss of life and in general all costs not directly measurable which require a large element of judgment for estimating.
Intermediate Synoptic Times
The times of 0300, 0900, 1500, and 2100 UTC.
International Date Line
The line of longitude located at 180 degrees East or West (with a few local deviations) where the date changes by a day. West of the line it is one day later than east of the line.
Interplanetary Magnetic Field
(abbrev. IMF) In solar-terrestrial terms, the magnetic field carried with the solar wind.
Inundation
The process of covering normally dry areas with flood waters.
Iridescence
Brilliant spots or borders of colors in clouds, usually red and green, caused by diffraction of light by small cloud particles. The phenomenon is usually observed in thin cirrus clouds within about 30° of the sun and is characterized by bands of color in the cloud that contour the cloud edges.
Iridescent Clouds
Clouds that exhibit brilliant bright spots, bands, or borders of colors, usually red and green, observed up to about 30 degrees from the sun. The coloration is due to the diffraction with small cloud particles producing the effect. It is usually seen in thin cirrostratus, cirrocumulus, and altocumulus clouds.
Isodop
A contour of constant Doppler velocity values.
Isodrosotherm
A line connecting points of equal dew point temperature.
Isolated
A National Weather Service convective precipitation descriptor for a 10 percent chance of measurable precipitation (0.01 inch). Isolated is used interchangeably with few.
ISOLD
Isolated
Jet Wind Speed Profile
A vertical wind speed profile characterized by a relatively narrow current of high winds with slower moving air above and below. A large wind (speed) shear occurs above and below the jet axis.
K-Index
A measure of the thunderstorm potential based on vertical temperature lapse rate, moisture content of the lower atmosphere, and the vertical extent of the moist layer. The temperature difference between 850 mb and 500 mb is used to parameterize the vertical temperature lapse rate. The 850 dew point provides information on the moisture content of the lower atmosphere. The vertical extent of the moist layer is represented by the difference of the 700 mb temperature and 700 mb dew point. This is called the 700 mb temperature-dew point depression. The index is derived arithmetically and does not require a plotted sounding.

K-index = (850 mb temperature - 500 mb temperature) + 850 mb dew point - 700 mb dew point depression
Katabatic Wind
A wind that is created by air flowing downhill.
Keetch-Byrum Drought Index
An index used to gage the severity of drought in deep duff and organic soils.
Kp Index
A 3-hourly planetary geomagnetic index of activity generated in Gottingen, Germany, based on the K Index from 12 or 13 stations distributed around the world
Lake Effect Snow Advisory
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when pure lake effect snow (this is where the snow is a direct result of lake effect snow and not because of a low pressure system) may pose a hazard or it is life threatening. The criteria for this advisory varies from area to area.
Lakeshore Flood Advisory
See Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Advisory.
Lakeshore Flood Watch
See: COASTAL/LAKESHORE FLOOD WATCH
Lakeshore Flooding
See COASTAL/LAKESHORE FLOODING
Land Breeze
A coastal breeze at night blowing from land to sea, caused by the difference in the rates of cooling of their respective surfaces.
Landfall
The intersection of the surface center of a tropical cyclone with a coastline. Because the strongest winds in a tropical cyclone are not located precisely at the center, it is possible for a cyclone's strongest winds to be experienced over land even if landfall does not occur. Similarly, it is possible for a tropical cyclone to make landfall and have its strongest winds remain over the water. Compare direct hit, indirect hit, and strike.
Landspout
[Slang], a tornado that does not arise from organized storm-scale rotation and therefore is not associated with a wall cloud (visually) or a mesocyclone (on radar). Landspouts typically are observed beneath Cbs or towering cumulus clouds (often as no more than a dust whirl), and essentially are the land-based equivalents of waterspouts.
Last Update
The time and date in which the forecast was issued or updated. The forecast may be updated at any time as weather conditions warrant.
Latitude
(abbrev. LAT) The location north or south in reference to the equator, which is designated at zero (0) degrees. Lines of latitude are parallel to the equator and circle the globe. The North and South poles are at 90 degrees North and South latitude.
Layered Haze
Haze produced when air pollution from multiple line, area or point sources is transported long distances to form distinguishable layers of discoloration in a stable atmosphere.
LCD (Local Climatological Data)
This National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) publication is produced monthly and annually for some 270 United States cities and it's territories. The LCD summarizes temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, wind speed and direction observation.
LDS
Lightning Detection System
LDT
Local Daylight Time.
Leader
The streamer which initiates the first phase of each stroke of a lightning discharge. The first stroke is led by a steeped leader, which may be preceded by a pilot streamer. All subsequent strokes begin with a dart leader.
Leader Spot
In solar-terrestrial terms, in a magnetically bipolar or multipolar sunspot group, the western part precedes and the main spot in that part is called the leader.
Leeside Low
Extratropical cyclones that form on the downwind (lee) side of a mountain chain. In the United States, they frequently form on the eastern side of the Rockies and Sierra Nevadas.
Leeward
The side away from the wind. Compare windward.
Left Front Quadrant
Used interchangably with Left Exit Region; the area downstream from and to the left of an upper-level jet max (as would be viewed looking along the direction of flow). Upward motion and severe thunderstorm potential sometimes are increased in this area relative to the wind speed maximum. See also entrance region, right rear quadrant.
Lenticular Cloud
A very smooth, round or oval, lens-shaped cloud that is often seen, singly or stacked in groups, near or in the lee of a mountain ridge.
Lid
(Also called cap.) A region of negative buoyancy below an existing level of free convection (LFC) where energy must be supplied to the parcel to maintain its ascent. This tends to inhibit the development of convection until some physical mechanism can lift a parcel to its LFC. The intensity of the cap is measured by its convective inhibition. The term capping inversion is sometimes used, but an inversion is not necessary for the conditions producing convective inhibition to exist.
Lid
A layer of warm air several thousand feet above the earth's surface which suppresses or delays the development of thunderstorms.
Lifted Index
(abbrev. LI)- A common measure of atmospheric instability. Its value is obtained by computing the temperature that air near the ground would have if it were lifted to some higher level (around 18,000 feet, usually) and comparing that temperature to the actual temperature at that level. Negative values indicate instability - the more negative, the more unstable the air is, and the stronger the updrafts are likely to be with any developing thunderstorms. However there are no "magic numbers" or threshold LI values below which severe weather becomes imminent.
Lifting Condensation Level
(LCL) - The level at which a parcel of moist air becomes saturated when it is lifted dry adiabatically.
Light Bridge
In solar-terrestrial terms, it is observed in white light, a bright tongue or streaks penetra- ting or crossing sunspot umbrae. The appearance of a light bridge is frequently a sign of impending region division or dissolution
Lightning Discharge
The series of electrical processes by which charge is transferred along a channel of high ion density between electrical charge centers of opposite sign. This can be between a cloud and the Earth's surface of a cloud-to-ground discharge.
Liquid Water Equivalent
Same as Water Equivalent; the liquid content of solid precipitation that has accumulated on the ground (snow depth). The accumulation may consist of snow, ice formed by freezing precipitation, freezing liquid precipitation, or ice formed by the refreezing of melted snow.
LMTD
limited
Loaded Gun (Sounding)
[Slang], a sounding characterized by extreme instability but containing a cap, such that explosive thunderstorm development can be expected if the cap can be weakened or the air below it heated sufficiently to overcome it.
Local Convective Wind
In fire weather terminology, local thermally driven winds arising over a comparatively small area and influenced by local terrain. Examples include sea and land breezes, lake breezes, diurnal mountain wind systems and columnar convective currents.
Lock & Dam (L&D)
Used in navigable rivers, lock and dams allow for large ships to move from one level of water to another.
Longitude
The location east or west in reference to the Prime Meridian, which is designated as zero (0) degrees longitude. The distance between lines of longitude are greater at the equator and smaller at the higher latitudes, intersecting at the earth's North and South Poles. Time zones are correlated to longitude.
Longwave Radiation
A term used to describe the infrared energy emitted by the earth and atmosphere at wavelengths between about 5 and 25 micrometers. Compare shortwave radiation.
Low Water Advisory
An advisory to describe water levels which are significantly below average levels over the Great Lakes, coastal marine zones, and any tidal marine area, waterway, or river inlet within or adjacent to a marine zone that would potentially be impacted by low water conditions creating a hazard to navigation.
Lowland Flooding
In hydrologic terms, inundation of low areas near the river, often rural, but may also occur in urban areas.
LTD
Limited
Madden-Julian Oscillation
(abbrev. MJO)- Tropical rainfall exhibits strong variability on time scales shorter than the seasonal El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). These fluctuations in tropical rainfall often go through an entire cycle in 30-60 days, and are referred to as the Madden-Julian Oscillation or intraseasonal oscillations. The intraseasonal oscillations are a naturally occurring component of our coupled ocean-atmosphere system. They significantly affect the atmospheric circulation throughout the global Tropics and subtropics, and also strongly affect the wintertime jet stream and atmospheric circulation features over the North Pacific and western North America. As a result, they have an important impact on storminess and temperatures over the United States. During the summer these oscillations have a modulating effect on hurricane activity in both the Pacific and Atlantic basins.
Major Flooding
A general term including extensive inundation and property damage. (Usually characterized by the evacuation of people and livestock and the closure of both primary and secondary roads.)
Mammatus Clouds
Rounded, smooth, sack-like protrusions hanging from the underside of a cloud (usually a thunderstorm anvil). Mammatus clouds often accompany severe thunderstorms, but do not produce severe weather; they may accompany non-severe storms as well.
Marine Small Craft Thunderstorm Advisory
A marine warning issued by Environment Canada Atmospheric Environment Branch when the possibility of thunderstorms is greater than 40 percent.
Marine Small Craft Wind Warning
A marine warning issued by Environment Canada Atmospheric Environment Branch for winds which are forecasted to be in the 20-33 knot range inclusive.
Maximum Spillway Discharge
In hydrologic terms, spillway discharge (cfs) when reservoir is at maximum designed water surface elevation.
Maximum Sustained Surface Wind
When applied to a particular weather system, refers to the highest one-minute average wind (at an elevation of 10 meters with an unobstructed exposure) associated with that weather system at a particular point in time.
MD
Mesoscale Discussion- When conditions actually begin to shape up for severe weather, SPC (Storm Prediction Center) often issues a Mesoscale Discussion statement anywhere from roughly half an hour to several hours before issuing a weather watch. SPC also puts out MCDs for hazardous winter weather events on the mesoscale, such as locally heavy snow, blizzards and freezing rain (see below). MCDs are also issued on occasion for heavy rainfall, convective trends, and other phenomena, when the forecaster feels he/she can provide useful information that is not readily available or apparent to field forecasters. MCDs are based on mesoscale analysis and interpretation of observations and of short term, high resolution numerical model output. The MCD basically describes what is currently happening, what is expected in the next few hours, the meteorological reasoning for the forecast, and when/where SPC plans to issue the watch (if dealing with severe thunderstorm potential). Severe thunderstorm MCDs can help you get a little extra lead time on the weather and allow you to begin gearing up operations before a watch is issued. The MCD begins with a numerical string that gives the LAT/LON coordinates of a polygon that loosely describes the area being discussed.
MDFY
Modify
MDLS
models
MDNGT
midnight
MDT
Moderate (or) Mountain Daylight Time
Mean Daily Temperature
The average of the highest and lowest temperatures during a 24-hour period.
Mean Depth
In hydrologic terms, the average depth of water in a stream channel or conduit. It is equal to the cross-sectional area divided by the surface width.
Mean Doppler Velocity
Reflectivity-weighted average velocity of targets in a given pulse resolution volume. Usually determined from a large number of successive radar pulses. Also called mean radial (towards or away from the antenna) velocity. Doppler velocity refers to spectral density first moment, radial velocity to base data.
Meander
In hydrologic terms, the winding of a stream channel
Meander Belt
In hydrologic terms, the area between lines drawn tangential to the extreme limits of fully developed meanders
Measured Ceiling
A ceiling classification applied when the ceiling value has been determined by an instrument, such as a ceilometer or ceiling light, or by the known heights of unobscured portions of objects, other than natural landmarks, near the runway. See variable ceiling.
Medium Frequency
(abbrev. MF)- That portion of the radio frequency spectrum from 0.3 to 3 MHz.
Medium Range
In forecasting, (generally) three to seven days in advance.
Medium Range Forecast (MRF)
A configuration of the National Water Model (NWM) that runs every 6 hours and produces 3-hourly deterministic forecasts of streamflow and hydrologic states for the contiguous United States (ConUS). This configuration is an ensemble forecast with 7 members; member 1 extends out to 10 days, while members 2-7 extend out to 8.5 days. Meteorological forcing data are drawn from the GFS.
Meridian
An imaginary line on the earth's surface passing through both geographic poles and through any given point on the planet, also called a line of longitude.
Meridional Flow
Large-scale atmospheric flow in which the north-south component (i.e., longitudinal, or along a meridian) is pronounced. The accompanying zonal (east-west) component often is weaker than normal. Compare with zonal flow.
Mesoscale Discussion
When conditions actually begin to shape up for severe weather, SPC (Storm Prediction Center) often issues a Mesoscale Discussion (MCD) statement anywhere from roughly half an hour to several hours before issuing a weather watch. SPC also puts out MCDs for hazardous winter weather events on the mesoscale, such as locally heavy snow, blizzards and freezing rain (see below). MCDs are also issued on occasion for heavy rainfall, convective trends, and other phenomena, when the forecaster feels he/she can provide useful information that is not readily available or apparent to field forecasters. MCDs are based on mesoscale analysis and interpretation of observations and of short term, high resolution numerical model output.

The MCD basically describes what is currently happening, what is expected in the next few hours, the meteorological reasoning for the forecast, and when/where SPC plans to issue the watch (if dealing with severe thunderstorm potential). Severe thunderstorm MCDs can help you get a little extra lead time on the weather and allow you to begin gearing up operations before a watch is issued. The MCD begins with a numerical string that gives the LAT/LON coordinates of a polygon that loosely describes the area being discussed.
Mesoscale High Winds
These high winds usually follow the passage of organized convective systems and are associated with wake depressions or strong mesohighs.
Meteorological Model Ensemble River Forecast (MMEFS)
An automated short-term hydrologic ensemble forecast system which utilizes temperature and precipitation output from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) GEFS and NAEFS meteorological models as inputs to River Forecast Center hydrologic models.
MID
Middle
Mid-Flame Wind
Wind measured at the midpoint of the flames, considered to be most representative of the speed of the wind that is affecting fire behavior.
Mid-Latitude Areas
Areas between 30o and 60o north and south of the Equator.
Mid-level Cooling
Local cooling of the air in middle levels of the atmosphere (roughly 8 to 25 thousand feet), which can lead to destabilization of the entire atmosphere if all other factors are equal.
Middle Clouds
(or Mid-Level Clouds) - A term used to signify clouds with bases between 6,500 and 23,000 feet. At the higher altitudes, they may also have some ice crystals, but they are composed mainly of water droplets. Altocumulus, altostratus, and nimbostratus are the main types of middle clouds. This altitude applies to the temperate zone. In the polar regions, these clouds may be found at lower altitudes. In the tropics, the defining altitudes for cloud types are generally higher.
Middle Latitudes
1) The latitude belt roughly between 35 and 65 degrees North and South. Also referred to as the temperate region.
or
2) With specific reference to zones of geomagnetic activity, "middle latitudes" refers to 20º to 50º geomagnetic
Minimum Discernible Signal
In a receiver, it is the smallest input signal that will a produce a detectable signal at the output. In radar terms, it is the minimal amount of back scattered energy that is required to produce a target on the radar screen. In other words, MDS is a measure of the radar's sensitivity.
Minor Flooding
A general term indicating minimal or no property damage but possibly some public inconvenience.
Minor Tidal Overflow
Minor flooding caused by high tides that results in little if any damage.
Mixed Layer
An atmospheric layer, usually the layer immediately above the ground, in which pollutants are well mixed by convective or shear-produced turbulence.
Mixed Precipitation
Any of the following combinations of freezing and frozen precipitation: snow and sleet, snow and freezing rain, or sleet alone. Rain may also be present.
Mixing Depth
Vertical distance between the ground and the altitude to which pollutants are mixed by turbulence caused by convective currents or vertical shear in the horizontal wind.
Model Output Statistics
(abbrev. MOS) - the Hydrometeorological Center (HPC) produces a short range (6 to 60 hours) MOS (Model Output Statistics) guidance package generated from the NGM, GFS, and ETA models for over 300 individual stations in the continental United States. These alphanumeric messages are made available at approximately 0400 and 1600 UTC for the 0000 and 1200 UTC forecast cycles, respectively. Model Output Statistics are a set of statistical equations that use model output to forecast the probability of precipitation, high and low temperature, cloud cover, and precipitation amount for many cities across the USA. The statistical equations were specifically tailored for each location, taking into account factors such as each location's climate.
Moderate Flooding
The inundation of secondary roads; transfer to higher elevation necessary to save property -- some evacuation may be required.
Moderate Risk (of severe thunderstorms)
Severe thunderstorms are expected to affect between 5 and 10 percent of the area. A moderate risk indicates the possibility of a significant severe weather episode. See high risk, slight risk, convective outlook.
Moist Adiabat
The line on a Skew T-Log P chart that depicts the change in temperature of saturated air as it rises and undergoes cooling due to adiabatic expansion. As saturated air rises, the temperature changes at a rate of 0.55 degrees Celsius per 100 meters (2-3 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 feet). Contrast with a dry adiabat.
Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate
(abbrev. MALR)- The rate at which the temperature of a parcel of saturated air decreases as the parcel is lifted in the atmosphere. The moist adiabatic lapse rate (abbreviated MALR) is not a constant like the dry adiabatic lapse rate but is dependent on parcel temperature and pressure.
Moist-adiabatic
(Also known as saturation-adiabatic process.) An adiabatic process for which the air is saturated and may contain liquid water. A distinction is made between the reversible process, in which total water is conserved, and the pseudoadiabatic or irreversible moist adiabatic process, in which liquid water is assumed to be removed as soon as it is condensed.
Moisture Advection
Transport of moisture by horizontal winds.
Moisture Ridge
An axis of relatively high dew point values. This axis is sometimes referred to as a 'moist tongue'.
Monostatic Radar
A radar that uses a common antenna for both transmitting and receiving.
Mostly Cloudy
When the 6/8th to 7/8ths of the sky is covered by with opaque (not transparent) clouds. Same as Considerable Cloudiness.
Mountain Wind System
The system of diurnal winds that forms in a complex terrain area, consisting of mountain-plain, along-valley, cross-valley and slope wind systems.
Mountain-Plain Wind System
A closed, large-scale, thermally driven circulation between the mountains and the surrounding plain. The mountain-to-plain flow making up the lower branch of the closed circulation usually occurs during nighttime, while the plain-to-mountain flow occurs during daytime.
Mountainado
A vertical-axis eddy produced in a downslope windstorm by the vertical stretching of horizontal roll vortices produced near the ground by vertical wind shear. Mountainadoes, when carried by the mean wind, can produce strong horizontal shears and wind gusts that are much more damaging than the general prevailing wind speeds.
Movable Bed
In hydrologic terms, a stream bed made up of materials readily transportable by the stream flow
Mud Slide
Fast moving soil, rocks and water that flow down mountain slopes and canyons during a heavy downpour of rain.
Multi-Radar Multi-Sensor (MRMS)
An automated system that rapidly and intelligently integrates data from multiple radars and radar networks, surface observations, numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, and climatology to generate seamless, high spatio-temporal resolution mosaics.
Multicell Thunderstorm
These thunderstorms are organized in clusters of at least 2-4 short-lived cells. Each cell generates a cold air outflow and these individual outflows combine to form a large gust front. Convergence along the gust front causes new cells to develop every 5 to 15 minutes. The cells move roughly with the mean wind. However, the area (storm) motion usually deviates significantly from the mean wind due to discrete propagation (new cell development) along the gust front. The multicellular nature of the storm is usually apparent on radar with multiple reflectivity cores and maximum tops.
Multiple Doppler Analysis
The use of more than one radar (and hence more than one look angle) to reconstruct spatial distributions of the 2D or 3D wind field, which cannot be measured from a single radar alone. Includes dual Doppler, triple Doppler, and overdetermined multiple Doppler analysis.
Multiple Vortex Tornado
A tornado in which two or more condensation funnels or debris clouds are present at the same time, often rotating about a common center or about each other. Multiple-vortex tornadoes can be especially damaging.
MWD
On a buoy report, mean wave direction corresponding to energy of the dominant period (DOMPD). The units are degrees from true North just like wind direction.
Nacreous Clouds
Clouds of unknown composition that have a soft, pearly luster and that form at altitudes about 25 to 30 km above the Earth's surface. They are also called "mother-of-the-pearl clouds."
Nadir
The point on any given observer's celestial sphere diametrically opposite of one's zenith.
NAO Index
This index measures the anomalies in sea level pressure between the Icelandic low pressure system and the Azores high pressure system in the North Atlantic Ocean.

When the NAO is in its is positive phase (+NAO), the northeastern United States sees an increase in temperature and a decrease in snow days; the central US has increased precipitation, the North Sea has an increase in storms; and Norway along with Northern Europe has warmer temperatures and increased precipitation.

When the NAO is in its negative phase (-NAO), the Tropical Atlantic and Gulf coast have increased number of strong hurricanes; northern Europe is drier, and Turkey along with other Mediterranean countries has increased precipitation.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
In the United States, national standards for the ambient concentrations in air of different air pollutants designed to protect human health and welfare.
National Blend of Models (NBM)
The National Blend of Models (NBM) is a nationally consistent and skillful suite of calibrated forecast guidance based on a blend of both NWS and non-NWS numerical weather prediction model data and post-processed model guidance.
National Climatic Data Center
The agency that archives climatic data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, as well as other climatological organizations.
National Digital Forecast Database
(NDFD)- The National Weather Service's NDFD provides access to gridded forecasts of sensible weather elements (e.g., wind, wave height) through the National Digital Forecast Database (NDFD). NDFD contains a seamless mosaic of digital forecasts from NWS field offices working in collaboration with the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). The database is made available to all customers and partners from the public, private and academic sectors. Those customers and partners may use this data to create a wide range of text, graphic, gridded and image products of their own.
National Fire Danger Rating System
A uniform fire danger rating system used in the United States that focuses on the environmental factors that impact the moisture content of fuels. Fire danger is rated daily over large administrative areas, such as national forests.
National Flood Summary
This NWS daily product (abbreviated FLN) contains nationwide information on current flood conditions. It is issued by the Hydrometeorological Information Center of the Office of Hydrology.
National Hydrologic Discussion (NHD)
A discussion of the current and forecast hydrologic conditions across the nation, including a variety of short and medium range (Days 1-10) observed and modeled hydrologic guidance.
National Water Model (NWM)
A hydrologic modelling framework that simulates observed and forecast streamflow over the entire continental United States and Hawaii.
National Water Model Medium-Range Forecast (NWM MRF)
A 10-day streamflow forecast for the over 3.6 million waterway miles across the Nation, forced by the GFS and updated every 6 hours.
National Water Model Short-Range Forecast (NWM SRF)
An 18-hour streamflow forecast for the over 3.4 million waterway miles across the Nation, forced by the HRRR and updated hourly.
National Weather and Crop Summary
A product of the National Agricultural Statistics Service, Agricultural Statistics Board, and U.S. Department of Agriculture. It contains weekly national agricultural weather summaries, including the weather's effect on crops; summaries and farm progress for 44 states and New England area.
Nautical Dawn
The time at which the sun is 12 degrees below the horizon in the morning. Nautical dawn is defined as that time at which there is just enough sunlight for objects to be distiguishable.
Nautical Dusk
The time at which the sun is 12 degrees below the horizon in the evening. At this time, objects are no longer distinguishable.
Navigation Methods
In hydrologic terms, there are three basic methods of providing and managing inland waterways -
1) Run-of-the-River: no provision of upstream storage;
2) Slack-Water: locks and dams provide slack water or pools with adequate depth for the draft of heavy barges and area to prevent excessive velocities;
3) Canalization: in lieu of a series of dams on the river a canal with locks adjoins the river.
NBND
Northbound
NCDC
National Climatic Data Center
NDBC
National Data Buoy Center
NDFD
(National Digital Forecast Database) - The National Weather Service's NDFD provides access to gridded forecasts of sensible weather elements (e.g., wind, wave height) through the National Digital Forecast Database (NDFD). NDFD contains a seamless mosaic of digital forecasts from NWS field offices working in collaboration with the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). The database is made available to all customers and partners from the public, private and academic sectors. Those customers and partners may use this data to create a wide range of text, graphic, gridded and image products of their own.
Neap Tide
A minimum tide occurring at the first and third quarters of the moon.
Negative Vorticity Advection
(Abbrev. NVA) - the advection of lower values of vorticity into an area.
NESDIS
National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service. NESDIS collects, processes, stores, analyzes, and disseminates various types of hydrologic, meteorologic, and oceanic data. NESDIS is also responsible for the development of analytical and descriptive products so as to meet the needs of it’s users.
Net All-Wave Radiation
The net or resultant value of the upward and downward longwave and shortwave radiative fluxes through a plane at the earth-atmosphere interface; a component of the surface energy budget.
NEWD
Northeastward
NEXRAD
NEXt Generation RADar. A NWS network of about 140 Doppler radars operating nationwide.
NOAA Weather Radio
"The voice of the National Weather Service" - NOAA Weather Radio broadcasts National Weather Service warnings, watches, forecasts and other hazard information 24 hours a day. It is provided as a public service by NOAA. The NOAA Weather Radio network has more than 480 stations in the 50 states and near adjacent coastal waters, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. Pacific Territories.
Noctilucent Clouds
Wavy, thin, bluish-white clouds that are best seen at twilight in polar latitudes. They form at altitudes about 80 to 90 km above the Earth's surface.
Nocturnal Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms which develop after sunset. They are often associated with the strengthening of the low level jet and are most common over the Plains states. They also occur over warm water and may be associated with the seaward extent of the overnight land breeze.
Non-Uniform Sky Condition
A localized sky condition which varies from that reported in the body of the report.
Numerical Weather Prediction
Same as Numerical Forecasting; a computer forecast or prediction based on equations governing the motions and the forces affecting motion of fluids. The equations are based, or initialized, on specified weather or climate conditions at a certain place and time.
NWD
Northward
NWRD
Northwestward
Occluded Front
A composite of two fronts, formed as a cold front overtakes a warm or quasi-stationary front. Two types of occlusions can form depending on the relative coldness of the air behind the cold front to the air ahead of the warm or stationary front. A cold occlusion results when the coldest air is behind the cold front and a warm occlusion results when the coldest air is ahead of the warm front.
Occluded Mesocyclone
A mesocyclone in which air from the rear-flank downdraft has completely enveloped the circulation at low levels, cutting off the inflow of warm unstable low-level air.
OEODM
The Office of Equal Opportunity and Diversity Management. Provides a duel role. Advises and assists the Assistant Administrator in carrying out the National Weather Service's (NWS) responsibilities relative to Civil Rights laws, Executive Orders, regulatory guidelines, and other nondiscrimination laws within the Federal Government. Advises and assists the Assistant Administrator in carrying out the NWS policy of diversity management by fostering an inclusive workforce, building an environment that respects the individual and offering opportunities for all employees to develop to their full potential. Cultural Diversity is the mixture of differences and similarities each employee brings to the workplace to accomplish the goals of the NWS.
OHD
Overhead
Operational Products
A product that has been fully tested and evaluated and is produced on a regular and ongoing basis.
Outer Convective Band
Bands in a hurricane that occur in advance of main rain shield and up to 300 miles from the eye of the hurricane. The typical hurricane has two or three bands (and sometimes more) which are comprised of cells resembling ordinary thunderstorms. Wind gusts are usually higher in these bands than in the Pre-Hurricane Squall Line.
Outflow Boundary
A storm-scale or mesoscale boundary separating thunderstorm-cooled air (outflow) from the surrounding air; similar in effect to a cold front, with passage marked by a wind shift and usually a drop in temperature. Outflow boundaries may persist for 24 hours or more after the thunderstorms that generated them dissipate, and may travel hundreds of miles from their area of origin.

New thunderstorms often develop along outflow boundaries, especially near the point of intersection with another boundary (cold front, dry line, another outflow boundary, etc.; see triple point).
Outgoing Longwave Radiation
Outgoing Longwave Radiation is a polar satellite derived measurement of the radiative character of energy radiated from the warmer earth surface to cooler space. This measurement provides information on cloud-top temperature which can be used to estimate tropical precipitation amounts which is important in forecasting weather and climate.
Outlet Discharge Structure
In hydrologic terms, protects the downstream end of the outlet pipe from erosion and is often designed to slow down the velocity of released water to prevent erosion of the stream channel
Overland Flow
In hydrologic terms, the flow of rainwater or snowmelt over the land surface toward stream channels. After it enters a watercourse it becomes runoff.
Ozone Action Day
A "heads-up" message issued by the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) through the National Weather Service when ozone levels may reach dangerous levels the next day. This message encourages residents to prevent air pollution by postponing the use of lawn mowing, motor vehicles, boats, as well as filling their vehicle gas tanks.
Ozone Advisory
It is issued by the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) through the National Weather Service when ozone levels reach 100. Ozone levels above 100 are unhealthy for people with heat and/or respiratory ailments.
Pacific Decadal Oscillation
(Abbrev. PDO) - a recently described pattern of climate variation similar to ENSO though on a timescale of decades and not seasons. It is characterized by SST anomalies of one sign in the north-central Pacific and SST anomalies of another sign to the north and east near the Aleutians and the Gulf of Alaska. It primarily affects weather patterns and sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Northwest, Alaska, and northern Pacific Islands.
Palmer Drought Severity Index
(Abbrev. PDSI) - an index used to gage the severity of drought conditions by using a water balance equation to track water supply and demand. This index is calculated weekly by the National Weather Service.
Panhandle Hook
Low pressure systems that originate in the panhandle region of Texas and Oklahoma which initially move east and then "hook" or recurve more northeast toward the upper Midwest or Great Lakes region. In winter, these systems usually deposit heavy snows north of their surface track. Thunderstorms may be found south of the track.
Partial-Duration Flood Series
In hydrologic terms, a list of all flood peaks that exceed a chosen base stage or discharge, regardless of the number of peaks occurring in a year.
Particle Trajectory Model
A computer sub-model that tracks the trajectories of multiple particles that are released into an atmospheric flow model.
Partly Cloudy
Between 3/8 and 5/8 of the sky is covered by clouds.
PC-GRIDDS
PC-Gridded Interactive Display and Diagnostic System - Allows the forecaster to view fields of gridded model output in contour or vector format. By doing this, the forecaster can extract relevant information from the numerical model grid-point data.
PD
Period
PDI
Palmer Drought Index
PDMT
Predominant
PDO
Pacific Decadal Oscillation - a recently described pattern of climate variation similar to ENSO though on a timescale of decades and not seasons. It is characterized by SST anomalies of one sign in the north-central Pacific and SST anomalies of another sign to the north and east near the Aleutians and the Gulf of Alaska. It primarily affects weather patterns and sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Northwest, Alaska, and northern Pacific Islands. Two main characteristics distinguish PDO from El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO): first, 20th century PDO "events" persisted for 20-to-30 years, while typical ENSO events persisted for 6 to 18 months; second, the climatic fingerprints of the PDO are most visible in the North Pacific/North American sector, while secondary signatures exist in the tropics- the opposite is true for ENSO. Several independent studies found evidence of just two full PDO cycles in the past century: cool" PDO regimes prevailed from 1890-1924 and again from 1947-1976, while "warm" PDO regimes dominated from 1925-1946 and from 1977 through (at least) the mid-1990's. Causes for the PDO are not currently known. Likewise, the potential predictability for this climate oscillation are not known.
PDS
Particularly Dangerous Situation (PDS) wording is used in rare situations when long-lived, strong and violent tornadoes are possible. This enhanced wording may also accompany severe thunderstorm watches for intense convective wind storms.
PDS Watch
The Particularly Dangerous Situation (PDS) wording is used in rare situations when long-lived, strong and violent tornadoes are possible. This enhanced wording may also accompany severe thunderstorm watches for intense convective wind storms.
PDSI
Palmer Drought Severity Index - an index used to gage the severity of drought conditions by using a water balance equation to track water supply and demand. This index is calculated weekly by the National Weather Service.
PDT
Pacific Daylight Time
Peak Discharge
In hydrologic terms, the rate of discharge of a volume of water passing a given location
Peak Wind Speed
The maximum instantaneous wind speed since the last observation that exceeded 25 knots.
Pendant Echo
Radar signature generally similar to a hook echo, except that the hook shape is not as well defined.
Perched Groundwater
In hydrologic terms, local saturated zones above the water table which exist above an impervious layer of limited extent.
Perturbation Model
A computer model used to calculate air pollution concentrations. A perturbation model produces a wind field from solutions to a simplified set of equations that describe atmospheric motions.
PFD
QPF Discussion (issued by the HPC)
Phenomenological Model
A computer model used to calculate air pollution concentrations. A phenomenological model focuses on an individual phenomenon, such as plume impingement or fumigation.
Plage Corridor
In solar-terrestrial terms, a space in chromospheric plage lacking plage intensity, coinciding with polarity inversion line.
Plan Position Indicator
An acronym for Plan Position Indicator. A PPI displays radar data horizontally using a map projection. In PPI mode, the radar makes a 360-degree sweep with the antenna at a specific elevation angle. A PPI display is the familiar radar display shown on the television weather programs.
Planetary Boundary Layer
The layer within the atmosphere between 1 km and the earth's surface where friction affects wind speed and wind direction.
Plow Wind
A term used in the midwestern United States to describe strong, straight-line winds associated with the downdrafts spreading out in advance of squall lines and thunderstorms. Resulting damage is usually confined to narrow zones like that caused by tornadoes; however, the winds are all in one direction (straight-line winds).
Plume-dominated Fire
A fire whose behavior is governed primarily by the local wind circulation produced in response to the strong convection above the fire rather than by the general wind.
PMD
Prognostic Discussion
PNHDL
Panhandle
Polarization Radar
A radar which takes advantage of ways in which the transmitted waves' polarization affect the backscattering. Such radars may alternately transmit horizontal and vertically polarized beams, and measure differential reflectivity.
Pondage
In hydrologic terms,
(1) The holding back of water for later release for power development above the dam of a hydroelectric plant to
(a) equalize daily or weekly fluctuations of streamflow or
(b) to permit irregular hourly use of water by the wheels to care for fluctuations in the load demand.
(2) In general the holding back of water for later releases.
(3) The storage capacity available for the use of such water.
Ponding
In hydrologic terms, in flat areas, runoff collects, or ponds in depression and cannot drain out. Flood waters must infiltrate slowly into the soil, evaporate, or be pumped out.
Positive Cloud to Ground Lightning
A CG flash that delivers positive charge to the ground, as opposed to the more common negative charge. Positive CGs have been found to occur more frequently in some severe thunderstorms. Their occurrence is detectable by most lightning detection networks, but visually it is not considered possible to distinguish between a positive CG and a negative CG. (Some claim to have observed a relationship between staccato lightning and positive CGs, but this relationship is as yet unproven.)
Positive Vorticity Advection
(Abbrev. PVA) - Advection of higher values of vorticity into an area, which often is associated with upward motion (lifting) of the air. PVA typically is found in advance of disturbances aloft (i.e., shortwaves), and is a property which often enhances the potential for thunderstorm development.
Powder Snow
Dry, loose, unconsolidated snow.
PRECD
Precede
Precipitation Mode
The standard, or default, operational mode of the WSR-88D. The radar automatically switches into precipitation mode from clear-air mode if the measured reflectivity exceeds a specific threshold value. The precipitation mode of NEXRAD is more sensitive than previous weather radars. The minimum detectable reflectivity in NEXRAD's precipitation mode is 5 dBZ, compared to 28 dBZ with the old WSR-57.
Predominant Wind
The wind that prevails and generates the local component of the significant sea conditions across the forecast area. This is the wind included in all marine forecast products and is defined as a 10-meter wind, except over the nearshore marine zones where it is defined to be the wind at a 3-meter height.
Prescribed Fire
A management ignited or natural wildland fire that burns under specified conditions where the fire is confined to a predetermined area and produces the fire behavior and fire characteristics required to attain planned fire treatment and resource management objectives.
Pressure Altitude
The altitude in standard atmosphere at which a given pressure will be observed. It is the indicated altitude of a pressure altimeter at an altitude setting of 29.92 inches of mercury, and is therefore the indicated altitude above the 29.92 constant pressure surface.
Pressure Falling Rapidly
A decrease in station pressure at a rate of 0.06 inch of mercury or more per hour which totals 0.02 inch or more.
Pressure Gradient
The amount of pressure change occurring over a given distance.
Pressure Gradient Force
A three-dimensional force vector operating in the atmosphere that accelerates air parcels away from regions of high pressure and toward regions of low pressure in response to an air pressure gradient. Usually resolved into vertical and horizontal components.
Pressure Head
Energy contained by fluid because of its pressure, usually expressed in feet of fluid (foot pounds per pound).
Pressure Induced Wave
A rare type of wave that does not develop from wind or seismic activity. Instead, these waves develop as a pressure perturbation moves over the water surface. The water surface adjusts to account for the atmospheric pressure change. As atmospheric pressure decreases, the force exerted upward by the water increases, creating a pressure induced wave.
Pressure Rising Rapidly
An increase in station pressure at a rate of 0.06 inch of mercury or more per hour which totals 0.02 inch or more.
Pressure Tendency
The character and amount of atmospheric pressure change during a specified period of time, usually 3-hour period preceding an observation.
Pressure Unsteady
A pressure that fluctuates by 0.03 inch of mercury or more from the mean pressure during the period of measurement.
Pressure-driven Channeling
Channeling of wind in a valley by synoptic-scale pressure gradients superimposed along the valley's axis. Compare forced channeling.
Prevailing Winds
A wind that consistently blows from one direction more than from any other.
Prevention of Significant Deterioration
A program, specified in the Clean Air Act, whose goal is to prevent air quality from deteriorating significantly in areas of the country that are presently meeting the ambient air quality standards.
Primary Ambient Air Quality Standards
Air quality standards designed to protect human health.
Primary Control Tide Station
A tide station where continuous observations have been made for a minimum of 19 years. Its purpose is to provide data for computing accepted values essential to tide predictions and for determining tidal datums for coastal and marine boundaries. The data series from primary control tide stations serves as a primary control for the reduction of tidal datum for subordinate tide stations with a shorter period of record. The 19 year period is the official tidal epoch for calculating tidal datums.
Primary Swell Direction
Prevailing direction of swell propagation.
Probability of Thunderstorms
The probability based on climatology that a thunderstorm will be reported at that location during a specified period of time.
Probability of Tropical Cyclone Conditio
The probability, in percent, that the cyclone center will pass within 50 miles to the right or 75 miles to the left of the listed location within the indicated time period when looking at the coast in the direction of the cyclone's movement.
Product Resolution
The smallest spatial increment or data element that is distinguishable in a given Doppler radar product.
PROGGED
Forecasted
Prognostic Discussion
This Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (HPC) discussion may include analysis of numerical and statistical models, meteorological circulation patterns and trends, and confidence factors. Reference is usually made to the manually produced 6- to 10-day Northern Hemisphere prognoses for mean 500 millibar heights and mean 500 millibar height anomalies. Discussions may also refer to the method of operational ensemble predictions.
Progressive Derecho
Derecho characterized by a short curved squall line oriented nearly perpendicular to the mean wind direction with a bulge in the general direction of the mean flow. Downburst activity occurs along the bulging portion of the line. This type of derecho typically occurs in the warm season (May through August) and is most frequent in a zone extending from eastern South Dakota to the upper Ohio Valley. The severe wind storms typically begin during the afternoon and continue into the evening hours. Several hours typically pass between initial convection and the first wind damage report.
PRVD
Provide
Pseudo-Cold Front
A boundary between a supercell's inflow region and the rear-flank downdraft (or RFD). It extends outward from the mesocyclone center, usually toward the south or southwest (but occasionally bows outward to the east or southeast in the case of an occluded mesocyclone), and is characterized by advancing of the downdraft air toward the inflow region. It is a particular form of gust front.
Pseudo-Warm Front
A boundary between a supercell's inflow region and the forward-flank downdraft (or FFD). It extends outward from at or near the mesocyclone center, usually toward the east or southeast, and normally is either nearly stationary or moves northward or northeastward ahead of the mesocyclone.
PTCLDY
Partly Cloudy
PTDY
On a buoy report, Pressure Tendency is the sign (plus or minus) and the amount of pressure change (hPa) for a three hour period ending at the time of observation.
Puddle
In hydrologic terms,
(1) The act of compacting earth, soil clay, etc., by mixing them with water and rolling or tamping the mixture.
(2) A compact mass of earth, soil, clay, or a mixture of material, which has been compacted through the addition of water, rolling and tamping. This makes the material less permeable.
(3) A small pool of water, usually a few inches in depth and from several inches to several feet in it greatest dimension.
Puget Sound Convergence Zone
A situation where wind forced around the Olympic Mountains converges over the Puget Sound. Causes extreme variability in weather conditions around Seattle, Washington with some areas of sunshine and others in clouds and rain.
Pulse Duration
The time over which a radar pulse lasts. The pulse duration can be multiplied by the speed of light to determine the pulse length or pulse width.
Pulse Radar
A type of radar, designed to facilitate range (distance) measurements, in which are transmitted energy emitted in periodic, brief transmission.
Pulse Severe Thunderstorms
Single cell thunderstorms which produce brief periods of severe weather (3/4 inch hail, wind gusts in the excess of 58 miles an hour, or a tornado).
Pulse Width
Same as Pulse Length; the linear distance in range occupied by an individual pulse from a radar. h = c * t , where t is the duration of the transmitted pulse, c is the speed of light, h is the length of the pulse in space. Note, in the radar equation, the length h/2 is actually used for calculating pulse volume because we are only interested in signals that arrive back at the radar simultaneously.
QPF Discussion
This HPC forecast discussion is directed completely to explaining manual forecasts of areas in the contiguous 48 states expected to receive 1/4 inch or more precipitation during a 24-hour period. The manual forecasts are explained in terms of initial conditions and differences and/or similarities in the numerical model forecasts. General confidence in the manual forecast is expressed where it is appropriate and possible alternatives may be offered. This product is issued 3 times a day.
QPFERD
NCEP Excessive Rainfall Discussion
QPFHSD
NCEP Heavy Snow Discussion
QPFPFD
NCEP Precipitation Forecast Discussion
QUAD
Quadrant
Quadrature
The component of the complex signal that is 90 degrees out of phase with the inphase component. This component lies along the imaginary axis the complex plane.
RADAP II
RAdar DAta Processor II, attached to some WSR-57 and WSR-74 radar units. It automatically controls the tilt sequence and computes several radar-derived quantities at regular intervals, including VIL, storm tops, accumulated rainfall, etc.
RADAR
Acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging; a radio device or system for locating an object by means of ultrahigh-frequency radio waves reflected from the object and received, observed, and analyzed by the receiving part of the device in such a way that characteristics (as distance and direction) of the object may be determined.
Radar Beam
The straight line that a radar pulse travels along. As the radar beam gets further away from the radar, it gets wider and wider. In order for a precipitation target to be detected by the radar, it must fill the entire radar beam; therefore, the radar will have a difficult time detecting small showers and thunderstorms at a great distance from the radar.
Radar Coded Message
This is an alphanumeric coded message which will be used in preparation of a national radar summary chart. It is automatically produced by the WSR-88D's Radar Product Generator (RPG) in 3 parts (reflectivities, storm motion, and echo tops).
Radar Cross Section
The area of a fictitious, perfect reflector of electromagnetic waves (e.g., metal sphere) that would reflect the same amount of energy back to the radar as the actual target (e.g., lumpy snowflake).
Radar Data Acquisition
An acronym for Radar Data Acquisition. The RDA is the hardware component of the NEXRAD system that consists of the radar antenna, transmitter, receiver, tower, and controlling computer. The RDA collects the unprocessed, analog voltages from the radar antenna and converts the signal to base reflectivity , base velocity, and spectrum width (in polar coordinate form). These "wide-band" products are transmitted to the RPG, which creates and disseminates end-user products. Also: The RDA is the origination point of the WSR-88D radar data that will be eventually used by the radar operator. This WSR-88D component group is made up of several subcomponents which generate and radiate radio frequency (RF) pulses, receive reflected energy from those pulses, and process this received energy into digital base data. The RDA is also the site of the first two of four data recording levels used by the WSR-88D to record and store radar data.
Radar Meteorology
Branch of meteorology that uses radars for weather observations and forecasts.
Radar Mosaic
A radar product that combines information from multiple radars to give a regional or national view of reflectivity or precipitation. An individual NEXRAD radar is limited to a range of about 200 miles. Typically, a mosaic product is produced for regions spanning several hundreds to several thousands of miles. Mosaic products are produced by vendors external to the NEXRAD system.
Radar Product Generator (RPG)
The RPG is the computer in the NEXRAD system that receives polar-coordinate base radar data from the RDA and processes these data into end-user products. Algorithms are utilized for pattern-recognition, rainfall estimation, computation of VIL and other products. The RPG communicates these products to end-users. A specific subset of available products is always generated for the NIDS vendors for distribution outside of the NWS, DoD, and FAA. Other products are generated by the RPG upon request from a PUP.
Radar Range
Distance from the radar antenna. The WSR-88D radar has a range for velocity products out to 124 nautical miles and reflectivity products out to 248 nautical miles.
Radar Reflectivity
The sum of all backscattering cross-sections (e.g., precipitation particles) in a pulse resolution volume divided by that volume. The radar reflectivity can be related to the radar reflectivity factor through the dielectric constant term |K|^2, and the radar wavelength.
Radar Reflectivity Factor (z)
z = the sum (over i) of (N_i * D_i^6), where N_i is the number of drops of diameter D_i in a pulse resolution volume. Note that z may be expressed in linear or logarithmic units. The radar reflectivity factor is simply a more meteorologically meaningful way of expressing the radar reflectivity.
Radial Velocity
Component of motion toward or away from a given location. As "seen" by Doppler radar, it is the component of motion parallel to the radar beam. (The component of motion perpendicular to the beam cannot be seen by the radar. Therefore, strong winds blowing strictly from left to right or from right to left, relative to the radar, can not be detected.)
Radiance
A measure of the intensity of the radiant energy flux emitted by a body in a given direction.
Radiation
Energy transport through electromagnetic waves. See shortwave radiation and longwave radiation.
Radiation Fog
A fog that forms when outgoing longwave radiation cools the near-surface air below its dew point temperature.
Radiation Laws
The four physical laws which fundamentally describe the behavior of blackbody radiation: Kirchhoff's law, Planck's law, Stefan-Boltzmann law and Wien's displacement law.
Radiational Cooling
The cooling of the Earth's surface. At night, the Earth suffers a net heat loss to space due to terrestrial cooling. This is more pronounced when you have a clear sky.
Radiational Inversion
Used interchangably with Nocturnal Inversion; a temperature inversion that develops during the night as a result of radiational cooling of the surface. Because the immediate surface (lower Boundary Layer) cools much more rapidly during these conditions than the air just above (upper Boundary Layer), a temperature inversion can be created overnight, but typically erodes quickly after sunrise.
Radio Emission
Emissions of the sun in radio wavelengths from centimeters to dekameters, under both quiet and disturbed conditions. Type I. A noise storm composed of many short, narrow-band bursts in the metric range (300 - 50 MHz). Type II. Narrow-band emission that begins in the meter range (300 MHz) and sweeps slowly (tens of minutes) toward deka- meter wavelengths (10 MHz). Type II emissions occur in loose association with major FLAREs and are indicative of a shock wave moving through the solar atmosphere. Type III. Narrow-band bursts that sweep rapidly (seconds) from decimeter to dekameter wavelengths (500 - 0.5 MHz). They often occur in groups and are an occasional feature of complex solar ACTIVE REGIONs. Type IV. A smooth continuum of broad-band bursts primarily in the meter range (300 - 30 MHz). These bursts are associated with some major flare events beginning 10 to 20 minutes after the flare maximum, and can last for hours
Radio Event
Flares with Centimetric Bursts and/or definite Ionospheric Event (SID)
Radiofacsimile
Also known as HF FAX, radiofax or weatherfax, is a means of broadcasting graphic weather maps and other graphic images via HF radio. HF radiofax is also known as WEFAX, although this term is generally used to refer to the reception of weather charts and imagery via satellite. Maps are received using a dedicated radiofax receiver or a single sideband shortwave receiver connected to an external facsimile recorder or PC equipped with a radiofax interface and application software.
Radiofax
Abbreviation for radiofacsimile
Radioisotope Snow Gage
A snow water equivalent gage based on the absorption of gamma radiation by snow; this gage can measure up to 55 inches water equivalent with a 2 to 5 percent error.
Radiosonde
An instrument that is carried aloft by a balloon to send back information on atmospheric temperature, pressure and humidity by means of a small, expendable radio transmitter. Radiosondes can be tracked by radar, radio direction finding, or navigation systems (such as the satellite Global Positioning System) to obtain wind data. See also rawinsonde.
Radius of Maximum Winds
The distance from the center of a tropical cyclone to the location of the cyclone's maximum winds. In well-developed hurricanes, the radius of maximum winds is generally found at the inner edge of the eyewall.
Rain Induced Fog
When warm rain falls through cooler air, water evaporates from the warm rain. It subsequently condenses in the cool air forming fog. Such fog can be quite dense. It generally will persist as long as the rain continues. Since temperature rises little during the day, there is little diurnal variation in rain induced fog. Improvement in visibility cannot be expected until the rain stops or moves out of the affected area.
Rain Shadow
An area of reduced precipitation on the lee side of a mountain barrier caused by warming of air and dissipation of cloudiness as air descends the barrier.
Rain Shield
In a hurricane, a solid or nearly solid area of rain that typically becomes heavier as one approaches the eye. The outer edge is well defined and its distance from the eye varies greatly from storm to storm. The wind, both sustained and peak gusts, keeps increasing as much as one moves through the rain shield toward the storm's eye.
Range Folding
This occurs when the radar receives a signal return from a pulse other than the most recent pulse. In this case, the radar sends out a pulse (a short burst of energy). This pulse will continue to go in a straight line until it strikes a target. When it strikes the target, a portion of the pulse will be back scattered towards the radar. If the target it strikes is well beyond the normal range of the radar, it will take longer for the back scattered energy to arrive back at the radar. As a result, the radar will most likely have sent out another pulse in the same direction before the back scattered energy arrives back at the radar. Therefore, when the radar receives the back scattered energy, it will assume that it came from an object much closer to the radar and it will improperly locate the echo. A multiple-trip return appears at the difference of the true range and a multiple of the unambiguous range, i.e., R_displayed = R_true - n * R_max, where n = 0,1,2,...
Range Height Indicator
The RHI is a radar display in which the radar scans vertically, with the antenna pointing at a specific azimuth or radial. NEXRAD does not support RHI, but the PUP software allows the NEXRAD operator to construct a vertical cross-section using data from multiple scans of the radar.
Range Unfolding
Process of removing range ambiguity in apparent range of a multitrip target on the radar.
Rapid Deepening
A decrease in the minimum sea-level pressure of a tropical cyclone of 1.75 mb/hr or 42 mb for 24 hours
Rapid Onset Flooding (ROF)
In the context of the National Water Model (NWM), rapid onset flooding refers to stream reaches that are forecast to at least double their flow within an hour, and meet or exceed their high water flow within six hours of this flow increase.
Rapidly Intensifying
Any maritime cyclone whose central pressure is dropping, or is expected to drop, at a rate of 1 MB per hour for 24 hours.
Rawinsonde
A radiosonde that is tracked to measure winds.
Rawinsonde Observation
A radiosonde observation which includes wind data.
RCMD
Recommend
RDG
ridge
RDS
Radius
Rear Flank Downdraft
A region of dry air subsiding on the back side of, and wrapping around, a mesocyclone. It often is visible as a clear slot wrapping around the wall cloud. Scattered large precipitation particles (rain and hail) at the interface between the clear slot and wall cloud may show up on radar as a hook or pendant; thus the presence of a hook or pendant may indicate the presence of an RFD.
Reconnaissance Code
An aircraft weather reconnaissance code that has come to refer primarily to in-flight tropical weather observations, but actually signifies any detailed weather observation or investigation from an aircraft in flight.
Record Event Report
This non-routine narrative product is issued by the National Weather Service to report meteorological and hydrological events that equal or exceed existing records.
Red Flag
This a fire weather program which highlights the onset of critical weather conditions conducive to extensive wildfire occurrences.
Red Flag Warning
A term used by fire-weather forecasters to call attention to limited weather conditions of particular importance that may result in extreme burning conditions. It is issued when it is an on-going event or the fire weather forecaster has a high degree of confidence that Red Flag criteria will occur within 24 hours of issuance. Red Flag criteria occurs whenever a geographical area has been in a dry spell for a week or two, or for a shorter period , if before spring green-up or after fall color, and the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) is high to extreme and the following forecast weather parameters are forecasted to be met:
1) a sustained wind average 15 mph or greater
2) relative humidity less than or equal to 25 percent and
3) a temperature of greater than 75 degrees F.
In some states, dry lightning and unstable air are criteria. A Fire Weather Watch may be issued prior to the Red Flag Warning.
Red Watch or Red Box
Slang for Tornado Watch.
Refractive Index
A measure of the amount of refraction. Numerically equal to the ratio of wave velocity in a vacuum to a wave speed in the medium, i.e., n = c / v where: v is actual speed, and c is speed of light in a vacuum.
Relative Humidity
A dimensionless ratio, expressed in percent, of the amount of atmospheric moisture present relative to the amount that would be present if the air were saturated. Since the latter amount is dependent on temperature, relative humidity is a function of both moisture content and temperature. As such, relative humidity by itself does not directly indicate the actual amount of atmospheric moisture present. See dew point.
Relative Wind
The wind with reference to a moving point. Sometimes called APPARENT WIND. See also APPARENT WIND, TRUE WIND.
Relocated
A term used in an advisory to indicate that a vector drawn from the preceding advisory position to the latest known position is not necessarily a reasonable representation of the cyclone's movement.
Replace and Route (R&R)
A methodology that ingests the official streamflow forecasts issued by the NWS RFCs at AHPS gauge locations, and utilizes the National Water Model (NWM) to route these forecasts downstream. This method is used to delineate the River Forecast Center Flood Inundation Map (RFC FIM).
Residual Layer
the elevated portion of a convective boundary layer that remains after a stable boundary layer develops at the ground (usually in late afternoon or early evening) and cuts off convection.
Residual Moisture
Atmospheric moisture which lingers over an area after the main weather system has departed.
RGD
Ragged
Ridge
1) An elongated area of relatively high atmospheric pressure; the opposite of trough.
or
2) In hydrologic terms, a line or wall of broken ice forced up by pressure. May be fresh or weathered
Ridge Ice
In hydrologic terms, ice piled haphazardly one piece over another in the form of ridges or walls.
Right Rear Quadrant
(Abbrev. RRQ) - Used interchangably with Right Entrance Region; the area upstream from and to the right of an upper-level jet max (as would be viewed looking along the direction of flow). Upward motion and severe thunderstorm potential sometimes are increased in this area relative to the wind speed maximum. See also exit region, left front quadrant.
RIOGD
Rio Grande
Rip Tide
See RIP CURRENTS
River Flood Statement
This product is used by the local National Weather Service Forecast Office (NWFO) to update and expand the information in the River Flood Warning. This statement may be used in lieu of a warning if flooding is forecasted, imminent, or existing and it presents no threat to life or property. The statement will also be used to terminate a River Flood Warning.
River Flood Warning
This is product is issued by the local National Weather Service Forecast Office (NWFO) when forecast points (those that have formal gaging sites and established flood stages) at specific communities or areas along rivers where flooding has been forecasted, is imminent, or is in progress. Flooding is defined as the inundation of normally dry areas as a result of increased water levels in an established water course. The flood warning is based on the RVF product from the River Forecast Center (RFC) in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The flood warning normally specifies crest information. It usually occurs 6 hours or later after the causative event and it is usually associated with widespread heavy rain and/or snow melt or ice jams.

It will contain the forecast point covered by the warning, the current stage (if it is available), and the established flood stage. It will also contain the forecasted crest from the River Forecast Center (RFC) in Minneapolis, Minnesota. From this forecasted crest, the NWFO will be able to determine which areas will be affected by the river flooding. This information will be included in the warning. Finally, the statement will include a site/event specific call to action.
River Flooding
The rise of a river to an elevation such that the river overflows its natural banks causing or threatening damage.
River Gage Datum
The arbitrary zero datum elevation which all stage measurements are made from.
Rocketsonde
A type of radiosonde that is shot into the atmosphere by a rocket, allowing it to collect data during its parachute descent from a higher position in the atmosphere than a balloon could reach.
Rockfill Dam
In hydrologic terms, an embankment dam of earth or rock in which the material is placed in layers and compacted by using rollers or rolling equipment.
Roll Cloud
A low, horizontal tube-shaped arcus cloud associated with a thunderstorm gust front (or sometimes with a cold front). Roll clouds are relatively rare; they are completely detached from the thunderstorm base or other cloud features, thus differentiating them from the more familiar shelf clouds. Roll clouds usually appear to be "rolling" about a horizontal axis, but should not be confused with funnel clouds.
Rolled Filled Dam
In hydrologic terms, an embankment dam of earth or rock in which the material is placed in layers and compacted by using rollers or rolling equipment
Rope Cloud
In satellite meteorology, a narrow, rope-like band of clouds sometimes seen on satellite images along a front or other boundary. The term sometimes is used synonymously with rope or rope funnel.
Rotor Cloud
A turbulent altocumulus cloud formation found in the lee of some mountain barriers when winds cross the barrier at high speed. The air in the cloud rotates around an axis parallel to the range. Also called a roll cloud.
RPD
Rapid
RTRD
Retard
S-Band Radar
These were in use as network radars in the National Weather Service prior to the installation of the WSR 88-D radars. They were 10-centimeter wavelength radars.
Sacramento Soil Moisture Accounting Model (SAC-SMA)
A continuous soil moisture accounting model with spatially lumped parameters that simulates runoff within a basin.
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale
The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale is a 1 to 5 categorization based on the hurricane's intensity at the indicated time. The scale provides examples of the type of damage and impacts in the United States associated with winds of the indicated intensity. In general, damage rises by about a factor of four for every category increase. The maximum sustained surface wind speed (peak 1-minute wind at the standard meteorological observation height of 10 m [33 ft] over unobstructed exposure) associated with the cyclone is the determining factor in the scale. The scale does not address the potential for other hurricane-related impacts, such as storm surge, rainfall-induced floods, and tornadoes.
Sandstorm
Particles of sand carried aloft by strong wind. The sand particles are mostly confined to the lowest ten feet, and rarely rise more than fifty feet above the ground.
Santa Ana Wind
In southern California, a weather condition in which strong, hot, dust-bearing winds descend to the Pacific Coast around Los Angeles from inland desert regions.
Satellite Hydrology Program
A NOHRSC program that uses satellite data to generate areal extent of snow cover data over large areas of the western United States.
SBND
Southbound
SBSD
Subside
Scattered
When used to describe precipitation (for example: "scattered showers") - Area coverage of convective weather affecting 30 percent to 50 percent of a forecast zone (s). When used to describe sky cover: 3/8th to 4/8th (sky cover is measured in eighths or oktas) of the sky covered by clouds. In U.S. weather observing procedures, this is reported with the contraction “SCT.”
Scud
Small, ragged, low cloud fragments that are unattached to a larger cloud base and often seen with and behind cold fronts and thunderstorm gust fronts. Such clouds generally are associated with cool moist air, such as thunderstorm outflow.
Second-Day Feet
In hydrologic terms, the volume of water represented by a flow of one cubic foot per second for 24 hours; equal to 86,400 cubic feet. This is used extensively as a unit of runoff volume. Often abbreviated as SDF.
Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards
Air quality standards designed to protect human welfare, including the effects on vegetation and fauna, visibility and structures.
Secondary Pollutant
Pollutants generated by chemical reactions occurring within the atmosphere. Compare primary pollutant.
Sector Boundary
In solar-terrestrial terms, in the solar wind, the area of demarcation between sectors, which are large-scale features distinguished by the predominant direction of the interplanetary magnetic field, toward or away from the sun.
Sectorized Hybrid Scan
A single reflectivity scan composed of data from the lowest four elevation scans. Close to the radar, higher tilts are used to reduce clutter. At further ranges, either the maximum values from the lowest two scans are used or the second scan values are used alone.
Sediment Storage Capacity
In hydrologic terms, the volume of a reservoir planned for the deposition of sediment.
Separation Eddy
An eddy that forms near the ground on the windward or leeward side of a bluff object or steeply rising hillside; streamlines above this eddy go over the object.
Serial Derecho
Type of derecho that consists of an extensive squall line which is oriented such that the angle between the mean wind direction and the squall line axis is small. A series of LEWPs and bow echoes move along the line. The downburst activity is associated with the LEWPs and bows. A Serial Derecho tends to be more frequent toward the north end of the line during the late winter and spring months. It occurs less frequently than its cousin the "progressive derecho."

It is associated with a linear type mesoscale convective system that moves along and in advance of a cold front or dry line. These boundaries are often associated with a strong, migratory surface low pressure system and strong short wave trough at 500 mb (strong dynamic forcing). Lifted Indices are typically -6 or lower and the advection of dry air in the mid-troposphere (3-7 km above ground) by relatively strong winds leads to high convective instability and increased downdraft potential. The bow echoes move along the line in the direction of the mean flow, often southwest to northeast. These storms move at speeds exceeding 35 knots. Squall line movement is often less than 30 knots.
Service Hydrologist
The designated expert of the hydrology program at a WFO.
Severe Thunderstorm
A thunderstorm that produces a tornado, winds of at least 58 mph (50knots), and/or hail at least 1" in diameter. Structural wind damage mayimply the occurrence of a severe thunderstorm. A thunderstorm wind equalto or greater than 40 mph (35 knots) and/or hail of at least 1" isdefined as approaching severe.
Severe Thunderstorm Warning
This is issued when either a severe thunderstorm is indicated by the WSR-88D radar or a spotter reports a thunderstorm producing hail one inch or larger in diameter and/or winds equal or exceed 58 miles an hour; therefore, people in the affected area should seek safe shelter immediately. Severe thunderstorms can produce tornadoes with little or no advance warning. Lightning frequency is not a criteria for issuing a severe thunderstorm warning. They are usually issued for a duration of one hour. They can be issued without a Severe Thunderstorm Watch being already in effect.

Like a Tornado Warning, the Severe Thunderstorm Warning is issued by your National Weather Service Forecast Office (NWFO). Severe Thunderstorm Warnings will include where the storm was located, what towns will be affected by the severe thunderstorm, and the primary threat associated with the severe thunderstorm warning. If the severe thunderstorm will affect the nearshore or coastal waters, it will be issued as the combined product--Severe Thunderstorm Warning and Special Marine Warning. If the severe thunderstorm is also causing torrential rains, this warning may also be combined with a Flash Flood Warning. If there is an ampersand (&) symbol at the bottom of the warning, it indicates that the warning was issued as a result of a severe weather report.

After it has been issued, the affected NWFO will follow it up periodically with Severe Weather Statements. These statements will contain updated information on the severe thunderstorm and they will also let the public know when the warning is no longer in effect.
Severe Thunderstorm Watch
This is issued by the National Weather Service when conditions are favorable for the development of severe thunderstorms in and close to the watch area. A severe thunderstorm by definition is a thunderstorm that produces one inch hail or larger in diameter and/or winds equal or exceed 58 miles an hour. The size of the watch can vary depending on the weather situation. They are usually issued for a duration of 4 to 8 hours. They are normally issued well in advance of the actual occurrence of severe weather. During the watch, people should review severe thunderstorm safety rules and be prepared to move a place of safety if threatening weather approaches.

A Severe Thunderstorm Watch is issued by the Storm Prediction Center in Norman, Oklahoma. Prior to the issuance of a Severe Thunderstorm Watch, SPC will usually contact the affected local National Weather Service Forecast Office (NWFO) and they will discuss what their current thinking is on the weather situation. Afterwards, SPC will issue a preliminary Severe Thunderstorm Watch and then the affected NWFO will then adjust the watch (adding or eliminating counties/parishes) and then issue it to the public by way of a Watch Redefining Statement. During the watch, the NWFO will keep the public informed on what is happening in the watch area and also let the public know when the watch has expired or been cancelled.
SEWD
Southeastward
Shelf Cloud
A low, horizontal wedge-shaped arcus cloud, associated with a thunderstorm gust front (or occasionally with a cold front, even in the absence of thunderstorms). Unlike the roll cloud, the shelf cloud is attached to the base of the parent cloud above it (usually a thunderstorm). Rising cloud motion often can be seen in the leading (outer) part of the shelf cloud, while the underside often appears turbulent, boiling, and wind-torn.
Short Wave Fade (SWF)
In solar-terrestrial terms, a particular ionospheric solar flare effect under the broad category of sudden ionospheric disturbances (SIDs) whereby short-wavelength radio transmissions, VLF, through HF, are absorbed for a period of minutes to hours.
Short-Term Prediction Research and Transition (SPoRT)
A NASA- and NOAA-funded activity to transition experimental/quasi-operational satellite observations and research capabilities to the operational weather community to improve short-term weather forecasts on a regional and local scale.
Short-Term Prediction Research and Transition Center - Land Information System (SPoRT-LIS)
Provides high-resolution (~3 km) gridded soil moisture products in real-time to support regional and local modeling and improve situational awareness.
Shortwave Radiation
In solar-terrestrial terms, shortwave radiation is a term used to describe the radiant energy emitted by the sun in the visible and near-ultraviolet wavelengths (between about 0.1 and 2 micrometers).
Showalter Index
(Abbrev. SWI) - a stability index used to determine thunderstorm potential. The SWI is calculated by lifting an air parcel adiabatically from 850 mb to 500 mb. The algebraic difference between the air parcel and the environmental temperature at 500 mb represents the SWI. It is especially useful when you have a shallow cool airmass below 850 mb concealing greater convective potential aloft. However, the SWI will underestimate the convective potential for cool layers extending above 850 mb. It also does not take in account diurnal heating or moisture below 850 mb. As a result, one must be very careful when using this index.
Sidelobe
A secondary energy maximum located outside the main radar beam. Typically, it contains a small percentage of energy compared to the main lobe, but it may produce erroneous echoes.
Single Cell Thunderstorm
This type of thunderstorm develops in weak vertical wind shear environments. On a hodograph, this would appear as a closely grouped set of random dots around the center of the graph. They are characterized by a single updraft core and a single downdraft that descends into the same area as the updraft. The downdraft and its outflow boundary then cut off the thunderstorm inflow. This causes the updraft and the thunderstorm to dissipate. Single cell thunderstorms are short-lived. They only last about 1/2 hour to an hour. These thunderstorms will occasionally become severe (3/4 inch hail, wind gusts in the excess of 58 miles an hour, or a tornado), but only briefly. In this case, they are called Pulse Severe Thunderstorms.
Sky Condition
Used in a forecast to describes the predominant/average sky condition based upon octants (eighths) of the sky covered by opaque (not transparent) clouds.

Sky ConditionCloud Coverage
Clear / Sunny0/8
Mostly Clear / Mostly Sunny1/8 to 2/8
Partly Cloudy / Partly Sunny3/8 to 4/8
Mostly Cloudy / Considerable Cloudiness5/8 to 7/8
Cloudy8/8
Fair (mainly for night)Less than 4/10 opaque clouds, no precipitation, no extremes of visibility/temperature/wind
SLD
Solid
Small Craft Advisory
(SCA) - An advisory issued by coastal and Great Lakes Weather Forecast Offices (WFO) for areas included in the Coastal Waters Forecast or Nearshore Marine Forecast (NSH) products. Thresholds governing the issuance of small craft advisories are specific to geographic areas. A Small Craft Advisory may also be issued when sea or lake ice exists that could be hazardous to small boats. There is no precise definition of a small craft. Any vessel that may be adversely affected by Small Craft Advisory criteria should be considered a small craft. Other considerations include the experience of the vessel operator, and the type, overall size, and sea worthiness of the vessel. Exact thresholds may be found in NWSI 10-303:https://www.nws.noaa.gov/directives/sym/pd01003003curr.pdf. For a list of NWS Weather Offices by Region, refer to the following website: http://www.nws.noaa.gov/organization.php
Small Craft Should Exercise Caution
Precautionary statement issued to alert mariners with small, weather sensitive boats.
Small Stream Flooding
In hydrologic terms, flooding of small creeks, streams, or runs.
Smoke Dispersal
Describes the ability of the atmosphere to ventilate smoke. Depends on the stability and winds in the lower layers of the atmosphere, i.e., a combination of mixing heights and transport winds.
Smoothed Sunspot Number
An average of 13 monthly RI numbers, centered on the month of concern.
Snow Accumulation and Ablation Model
In hydrologic terms, a model which simulates snow pack accumulation, heat exchange at the air-snow interface, areal extent of snow cover, heat storage within the snow pack, liquid water retention, and transmission and heat exchange at the ground-snow interface.
Snow Advisory
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when a low pressure system produces snow that may cause significant inconveniences, but do not meet warning criteria and if caution is not exercised could lead to life threatening situations. The advisory criteria varies from area to area. If the forecaster feels that it is warranted, he or she can issued it for amounts less than the minimum criteria. For example, it may be issued for the first snow of the season or when snow has not fallen in long while.
Snow Data Assimilation System (SNODAS)
A physically based, mass conserving snow water equivalent (SWE) model.
Snow Density
The mass of snow per unit volume which is equal to the water content of the snow divided by its depth.
Snow Depth
The combined total depth of both the old and new snow on the ground.
Snowboard
A flat, solid, white material, such as painted plywood, approximately two feet square, which is laid on the ground, or snow surface by weather observers to obtain more accurate measurements of snowfall and water content.
Snowmelt Flooding
In hydrologic terms, flooding caused primarily by the melting of snow.
Solar Coordinates
In solar-terrestrial terms, Central Meridian Distance (CMD). The angular distance in solar longitude measured from the central meridian
Solar Sector Boundary (SSB)
In solar-terrestrial terms, the apparent solar origin, or base, of the interplanetary sector boundary marked by the larger-scale polarity inversion lines.
Solar Wind
The outward flux of solar particles and magnetic fields from the sun. Typically, solar wind velocities are near 350 km/s.
Sounding
A set of data measuring the vertical structure of an atmospheric parameter (temperature, humidity, pressure, winds, etc.) at a given time.
Southern Oscillation Index
A numerical index measuring the state of the Southern Oscillation. The SOI is based on the (atmospheric) pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin, Australia. It is highly correlated with tropical sea surface temperature anomaly indices recorded in Niño3.
SPD
1) Speed
2) On a buoy report, ten-minute average wind speed values in m/s.
Spearhead Echo
A radar echo associated with a downburst with a pointed appendage extending toward the direction of the echo motion. The appendage moves much faster than the parent echo, which is drawn into the appendage. During it's mature stage, the appendage turns into a major echo and the parent echo loses its identity.
Special Tropical Disturbance Statement
This statement issued by the National Hurricane Center furnishes information on strong and formative non-depression systems. This statement focuses on the major threat(s) of the disturbance, such as the potential for torrential rainfall on an island or inland area. The statement is coordinated with the appropriate forecast office(s).
Specific Humidity
In a system of moist air, the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the system.
Specific Yield
In hydrologic terms, the ratio of the water which will drain freely from the material to the total volume of the aquifer formation. This value will always be less than the porosity.
Spectral Density
A radar term for the distribution of power by frequency.
Spectral Wave Density
On a buoy report, energy in (meter*meter)/Hz, for each frequency bin (typically from 0.03 Hz to 0.40 Hz).
Spectral Wave Direction
On a buoy report, mean wave direction, in degrees from true North, for each frequency bin.
Spectrum Width
This WSR-88D radar product depicts a full 360 degree sweep of spectrum width data indicating a measure of velocity dispersion within the radar sample volume. It is available for every elevation angle sampled, it provides a measure of the variability of the mean radial velocity estimates due to wind shear, turbulence, and/or the quality of the velocity samples. It is used to estimate turbulence associated with boundaries, thunderstorms, and mesocyclones; check the reliability of the velocity estimates; and locate boundaries (cold front, outflow, lake breeze, etc.).
Spectrum Width Cross Section
This WSR-88D radar product displays a vertical cross section of spectrum width on a grid with heights up to 70,000 feet on the vertical axis and distance up to 124 nm on the horizontal axis. Two end points to create cross section are radar operator selected along a radial or from one AZRAN to another AZRAN within 124 nm of the radar that are less than 124 nm apart.
It is used to:
1) Verify features on the Reflectivity Cross Section (RCS) and Velocity Cross Section (VCS) and to evaluate the quality of the velocity data
2) Estimate vertical extent of turbulence (aviation use).
Speed Shear
The component of wind shear which is due to a change in wind speed with height, e.g., southwesterly winds of 20 mph at 10,000 feet increasing to 50 mph at 20,000 feet. Speed shear is an important factor in severe weather development, especially in the middle and upper levels of the atmosphere.
Sporadic E
In solar-terrestrial terms, a phenomenon occurring in the E region of the ionosphere, which significantly affects HF radiowave propagation. Sporadic E can occur during daytime or nighttime and it varies markedly with latitude.
SPRD
Spread
Spring Tide
A tide higher than normal which occurs around the time of the new and full moon.
Stability Index
The overall stability or instability of a sounding is sometimes conveniently expressed in the form of a single numerical value. Used alone, it can be quite misleading, and at times, is apt to be worthless. The greatest value of an index lies in alerting the forecaster to those soundings which should be examined more closely.
Stable Boundary Layer
The stably-stratified layer that forms at the surface and grows upward, usually at night or in winter, as heat is extracted from the atmosphere's base in response to longwave radiative heat loss from the ground. Stable boundary layers can also form when warm air is advected over a cold surface or over melting ice.
Standard Atmosphere
A hypothetical vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature, pressure, and density that, by international agreement, is taken to be representative of the atmosphere for purposes of pressure altimeter calibrations, aircraft performance calculations, aircraft and missile design, ballistic tables, etc.
Standard Synoptic Times
The times of 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 UTC. Also known as the main synoptic times.
State Forecast Product
This National Weather Service product is intended to give a good general picture of what weather may be expected in the state during the next 5 days. The first 2 days of the forecast is much more specific than the last 3 days. In comparison with the Zone Forecast Product, this product will be much more general.
State Weather Roundup
This is a National Weather Service tabular product which provides routine hourly observations within the state through the National Weather Wire Service (NWWS). It gives the current weather condition in one word (cloudy, rain, snow, fog, etc.), the temperature and dew point in Fahrenheit, the relative humidity, wind speed and direction, and finally additional information (wind chill, heat index, a secondary weather condition). These reports are broken up regionally. When the complementary satellite product is not available, reports from unaugmented ASOS stations will report "fair" in the sky/weather column when there are few or no clouds (i.e., scattered or less) below 12,000 feet with no significant weather and/or obstructions to visibility.
Station ID
Five-digit WMO Station Identifier used by the Buoy Data Center since 1976. ID's can be reassigned to future deployments within the same 1 degree square.
Station Model
A specified pattern for plotting, on a weather map, the meteorological symbols that represent the state of the weather at a particular observing station.
Steering Winds
Same as Steering Currents; A prevailing synoptic scale flow which governs the movement of smaller features embedded within it.
Stepped Leader
A faint, negatively charged channel that emerges from the base of a thunderstorm and propagates toward the ground in a series of steps of about 1 microsecond duration and 50-100 meters in length, initiating a lightning stroke.
Storm Data
This National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) monthly publication documents a chronological listing, by states, of occurrences of storms and unusual weather phenomena. Reports contain information on storm paths, deaths, injuries, and property damage. An "Outstanding storms of the month" section highlights severe weather events with photographs, illustrations, and narratives. The December issue includes annual tornado, lightning, flash flood, and tropical cyclone summaries.
Storm Relative Mean Radial Velocity Map
(SRM): This WSR-88D radar product depicts a full 360º sweep of radial velocity data with the average motion of all identified storms subtracted out. It is available for every elevation angle sampled. It is used to aid in displaying shear and rotation in storms and storm top divergence that might otherwise be obscured by the storm's motion, investigate the 3-D velocity structure of a storm, and help with determining rotational features in fast and uniform moving storms.
Storm Relative Mean Radial Velocity Regi
(SRR): This WSR-88D radar product depicts a 27 nm by 27 nm region of storm relative mean radial velocity centered on a point which the operator can specify anywhere within a 124 nm radius of the radar. The storm motion subtracted defaults to the motion of the storm closest to the product center, or can be input by the operator. It is used to examine the 3-dimensional storm relative flow of a specific thunderstorm (radar operator centers product on a specific thunderstorm; aid in displaying shear and rotation in thunderstorms and storm top divergence that might otherwise be obscured by storm motion; and gain higher resolution velocity product
Storm Tide
The actual level of sea water resulting from the astronomic tide combined with the storm surge. Most NWS flood statements, watches, or warnings quantifying above-normal tides will report the Storm Tide.
Stormwater Discharge
In hydrologic terms, precipitation that does not infiltrate into the ground or evaporate due to impervious land surfaces but instead flows onto adjacent land or water areas and is routed into drain/sewer systems.
Straight-Line Hodograph
The name pretty well describes what it looks like on the hodograph. What causes this shape is a steady increase of winds with height (vertical wind shear). This shape of hodograph favors multicell thunderstorms.
Straight-line Winds
Generally, any wind that is not associated with rotation, used mainly to differentiate them from tornadic winds.
Stratiform Rings and Bands
These occur between the active convective bands of a hurricane outside of the eye wall. Inner stratiform bands often exhibit the bright band aloft, a VIP Level 2, and in the lower layers typically show a VIP Level 1.
Subsidence
1. A descending motion of air in the atmosphere occurring over a rather broad area.
2. In hydrologic terms, sinking down of part of the earth's crust due to underground excavation, such as the removal of groundwater.
Subsidence Inversion
A temperature inversion that develops aloft as a result of air gradually sinking over a wide area and being warmed by adiabatic compression, usually associated with subtropical high pressure areas.
Subtropical Depression
A subtropical cyclone in which the maximum 1-minute sustained surface wind is 33 knots (38 mph) or less.
Sudden Commencement (SC)
In solar-terrestrial terms, an abrupt increase or decrease in the northward component of the geomagnetic field, which marks the beginning of a geomagnetic storm.
Sudden Impulse (SI+ or SI-)
In solar-terrestrial terms, a sudden perturbation of several gammas in the northward component of the low-latitude geomagnetic field, not associated with a following geomagnetic storm. (An SI becomes an SC if a storm follows.)
Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance (SID)
In solar-terrestrial terms, HF propagation anomalies due to ionospheric changes resulting from solar flares, proton events and geomagnetic storms.
Sun Dog
see Parhelion
Supercell Thunderstorm
Potentially the most dangerous of the convective storm types. Storms possessing this structure have been observed to generate the vast majority of long-lived strong and violent (F2-F5) tornadoes, as well as downburst damage and large hail. It is defined as a thunderstorm consisting of one quasi-steady to rotating updraft which may exist for several hours. Supercells usually move to the right of the mean wind. These are called "Right Movers" and they are favored with veering winds. Occasionally, these thunderstorms will move to the left of the mean wind. These thunderstorms are called "Left Movers". These supercells typically don't last as long as their "Right Mover" cousins and they usually only produce large hail (greater than 3/4 inch in diameter) and severe wind gusts in the excess of 58 miles an hour. Left Movers are favored when you have backing winds.

Radar will observe essentially one long-lived cell, but small perturbations to the cell structure may be evident. The stronger the updraft, the better the chance that the supercell will produce severe (hail greater than 3/4 inch in diameter, wind gusts greater than 58 miles an hour, and possibly a tornado) weather.

Severe supercell development is most likely in an environment possessing great buoyancy (CAPE) and large vertical wind shear. A Bulk Richardson Number of between 15 and 35 favor supercell development. Typically, the hodograph will look like a horse shoe. This is due to the wind speed increasing rapidly with height and the wind direction either veering or backing rapidly with height.
Supercooled Liquid Water
In the atmosphere, liquid water can survive at temperatures colder than 0 degrees Celsius; many vigorous storms contain large amounts of supercooled liquid water at cold temperatures. Important in the formation of graupel and hail.
Surface Energy Budget
The energy or heat budget at the earth's surface, considered in terms of the fluxes through a plane at the earth-atmosphere interface. The energy budget includes radiative, sensible, latent and ground heat fluxes.
Surface impoundment
In hydrologic terms, an indented area in the land's surface, such as a pit, pond, or lagoon.
Surface-based Convection
Convection occurring within a surface-based layer, i.e., a layer in which the lowest portion is based at or very near the earth's surface. Compare with elevated convection.
Sustained Overdraft
In hydrologic terms, long-term withdrawal from the aquifer of more water than is being recharged.
Sustained Wind
Wind speed determined by averaging observed values over a two-minute period.
SWD
On a buoy report, Swell Direction is the compass direction from which the swell wave are coming from.
Swell Direction
The direction from which the swells are propagating.
SWODY1
The Day-1 Convective Outlook, sometimes called the "AC" is a guidance product issued by the Operational Guidance Branch (OGB) unit of the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) in Norman, Oklahoma. The Day 1 outlook outlines areas in the continental United States where severe thunderstorms may develop during the next 6 to 30 hours.
SWODY2
The Day 2 Convective Outlook is very similar to the Day 1 Outlook. It is issued only twice a day, at 08Z and 18Z, and covers the period from 12Z the following day to 12Z the day after that. For example, if today is Monday then the Day 2 Outlook will cover the period 12Z Tuesday to 12Z Wednesday. The outlook issued at 08Z now qualifies the degree of risk like the Day 1 has (i.e. SLGT, MDT, and HIGH risk areas). The Day 2 Outlook has also includes a general thunderstorm outline.
SWWD
Southwestward
Symmetric Double Eye
A concentrated ring of convection that develops outside the eye wall in symmetric, mature hurricanes. The ring then propagates inward and leads to a double-eye. Eventually, the inner eye wall dissipates while the outer intensifies and moves inward.
Synchronous Detection
Radar processing that retains the received signal amplitude and phase but that removes the intermediate frequency carrier.
Synoptic Code
Rules and procedures established by the World Meteorological Organization(WMO) for encoding weather observations.
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
A radar mounted on a moving platform (aircraft or satellite) used for imaging. Since the radar antenna moves a significant distance between transmission and receiving the signal back, the radar antenna acts as if it is larger than its physical dimensions, providing better range and azimuth resolution.
Synthetic Aperture Radar River Ice Surveillance (SARRIS)
An experimental river ice mapping experiment using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR).
Tail Cloud
A horizontal, tail-shaped cloud (not a funnel cloud) at low levels extending from the precipitation cascade region of a supercell toward the wall cloud (i.e., it usually is observed extending from the wall cloud toward the north or northeast). The base of the tail cloud is about the same as that of the wall cloud. Cloud motion in the tail cloud is away from the precipitation and toward the wall cloud, with rapid upward motion often observed near the junction of the tail and wall clouds. Compare with beaver tail, which is a form of inflow band that normally attaches to the storm's main updraft (not to the wall cloud) and has a base at about the same level as the updraft base (not the wall cloud).
Tail-End Charlie
Slang for the thunderstorm at the southernmost end of a squall line or other line or band of thunderstorms. Since low-level southerly inflow of warm, moist air into this storm is relatively unimpeded, such a storm often has a higher probability of strengthening to severe levels than the other storms in the line.
TD
Tropical Depression
TDA
Today
TDWR
Terminal Doppler Weather Radar
Terminal Aerodrome Forecast
This NWS aviation product is a concise statement of the expected meteorological conditions at an airport during a specified period (usually 24 hours). Each country is allowed to make modifications or exceptions to the code for use in each particular country. TAFs use the same weather code found in METAR weather reports.
Terrain Forced Flow
An airflow that is modified or channeled as it passes over or around mountains or through gaps in a mountain barrier.
Theodolite
An instrument used in surveying to measure horizontal and vertical angles with a small telescope that can move in the horizontal and vertical planes. It used to track the movements of either a ceiling balloon or a radiosonde.
Thermal Wind
It is a theoretical wind that blows parallel to the thickness lines, for the layer considered, analogous to how the geostrophic wind blows parallel to the height contours. The closer the thickness isopleths, the stronger the thermal wind. Cold air is always located to the left of the thermal wind (as you face downstream) and the warm air is located on the right. Since thickness contours are tighter on the cold side of thermal wind, your lower thickness values will be found on the left side of the thermal wind. The speed and direction of the thermal wind are determined by vector geometry where the geostrophic wind at the upper level is subtracted from the geostrophic wind at the lower level.
Thermally Driven Circulation
A diurnally reversing closed cellular wind current resulting from horizontal temperature contrasts caused by different rates of heating or cooling over adjacent surfaces; includes along-slope, cross-valley, along-valley, mountain-plain and sea breeze circulations.
Thermodynamic Chart
A chart containing contours of pressure, temperature, moisture, and potential temperature, all drawn relative to each other such that basic thermodynamic laws are satisfied. Such a chart typically is used to plot atmospheric soundings, and to estimate potential changes in temperature, moisture, etc. if air were displaced vertically from a given level. A thermodynamic chart thus is a useful tool in diagnosing atmospheric instability.
Thermodynamic Diagram
Used interchangably with Thermodynamic Chart; a chart containing contours of pressure, temperature, moisture, and potential temperature, all drawn relative to each other such that basic thermodynamic laws are satisfied. Such a chart typically is used to plot atmospheric soundings, and to estimate potential changes in temperature, moisture, etc. if air were displaced vertically from a given level. A thermodynamic chart thus is a useful tool in diagnosing atmospheric instability.
Thermodynamics
In general, the relationships between heat and other properties (such as temperature, pressure, density, etc.) In forecast discussions, thermodynamics usually refers to the distribution of temperature and moisture (both vertical and horizontal) as related to the diagnosis of atmospheric instability.
Theta-e Ridge
An axis of relatively high values of theta-e. Severe weather and excessive rainfall often occur near or just upstream from a theta-e ridge.
Threshold Runoff
In hydrologic terms, the runoff in inches from a rain of specified duration that causes a small stream to slightly exceed bankfull. When available, flood stage is used instead of slightly over bankfull.
THSD
Thousand
Thunder
The sound caused by rapidly expanding gases in a lightning discharge.
Thunderstorm
A local storm produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and accompanied by lightning and thunder.
Tidal Cycle
The periodic changes in the intensity of tides caused primarily by the varying relations between the earth, moon, and sun.
Tidal Piling
Occurs when unusually high water levels occur as the result of an accumulation of successive incoming tides that do not completely drain due to opposing strong winds and/or waves.
Tidal Wave
See TSUNAMI
TIDE
On a buoy report, the water level in feet above or below Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW).
Tide Anomaly
Actual water level minus the prediction.
Tide Prediction
The computation of tidal highs and lows at a given location resulting from the gravitational interactions between the earth and primarily the moon and sun.
Tides
The periodic (occurring at regular intervals) variations in the surface water level of the oceans, bays, gulfs, and inlets. Tides are the result of the gravitiational attraction of the sun and the moon on the earth. The attraction of the moon is far greater than the attraction of the sun due to the close proximity of the earth and the moon. The sun is 360 times further from the earth than the moon. Therefore, the moon plays a larger role than the sun in producing tides. Every 27.3 days, the earth and the moon revolve around a common point. This means that the oceans and other water bodies which are affected by the earth-moon system experience a new tidal cycle every 27.3 days. Because of the physical processes which occur to produce the tidal system, there are two high tides and two low tides each day. Because of the angle of the moon with respect to the earth, the two high tides each day do not have to be of equal height. The same holds true for the two low tides each day. Tides also differ in height on a daily basis. The daily differences between tidal heights is due to the changing distance between the earth and the moon. Scientists use measurements of the height of the water level to examine tides and the various phenomena which influence tides, such as hurricanes and winter storms.
Tilted Storm
A thunderstorm or cloud tower which is not purely vertical but instead exhibits a slanted or tilted character. It is a sign of vertical wind shear, a favorable condition for severe storm development.
Tilted Updraft
A thunderstorm updraft which is not purely vertical but instead exhibits a slanted or tilted character. It is a sign of vertical wind shear, a favorable condition for severe storm development.
TNDCY
Tendency
Toe of Dam
(Upstream and Downstream) : The junction of the face of a dam with the ground surface
Tornado
A violently rotating column of air, usually pendant to a cumulonimbus, with circulation reaching the ground. It nearly always starts as a funnel cloud and may be accompanied by a loud roaring noise. On a local scale, it is the most destructive of all atmospheric phenomena.
Tornado Emergency
An exceedingly rare tornado warning issued when there is a severe threat to human life and catastrophic damage from an imminent or ongoing tornado. This tornado warning is reserved for situations when a reliable source confirms a tornado, or there is clear radar evidence of the existence of a damaging tornado, such as the observation of debris.
Tornado Family
A series of tornadoes produced by a single supercell, resulting in damage path segments along the same general line.
Tornado Vortex Signature
An image of a tornado on the Doppler radar screen that shows up as a small region of rapidly changing wind speeds inside a mesocyclone. The following velocity criteria is normally required for recognition: velocity difference between maximum inbound and outbound (shear) is greater than or equal to 90 knots at less than 30 nmi and is greater than or equal to 70 knots between 30 and 55 nmi. It shows up as a red upside down triangle on the Storm Relative Velocity Display. Existence of a TVS strongly increases the probability of tornado occurrence, but does not guarantee it; therefore, the feature triggering it must be examined closely by the radar operator. A TVS is not a visually observable feature.
Tornado Warning
This is issued when a tornado is indicated by the WSR-88D radar or sighted by spotters; therefore, people in the affected area should seek safe shelter immediately. They can be issued without a Tornado Watch being already in effect. They are usually issued for a duration of around 30 minutes.

A Tornado Warning is issued by your local National Weather Service office (NWFO). It will include where the tornado was located and what towns will be in its path. If the tornado will affect the nearshore or coastal waters, it will be issued as the combined product--Tornado Warning and Special Marine Warning. If the thunderstorm which is causing the tornado is also producing torrential rains, this warning may also be combined with a Flash Flood Warning. If there is an ampersand (&) symbol at the bottom of the warning, it indicates that the warning was issued as a result of a severe weather report.

After it has been issued, the affected NWFO will followed it up periodically with Severe Weather Statements. These statements will contain updated information on the tornado and they will also let the public know when warning is no longer in effect.
Tornado Watch
This is issued by the National Weather Service when conditions are favorable for the development of tornadoes in and close to the watch area. Their size can vary depending on the weather situation. They are usually issued for a duration of 4 to 8 hours. They normally are issued well in advance of the actual occurrence of severe weather. During the watch, people should review tornado safety rules and be prepared to move a place of safety if threatening weather approaches.

A Tornado Watch is issued by the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) in Norman, Oklahoma. Prior to the issuance of a Tornado Watch, SPC will usually contact the affected local National Weather Forecast Office (NWFO) and they will discuss what their current thinking is on the weather situation. Afterwards, SPC will issue a preliminary Tornado Watch and then the affected NWFO will then adjust the watch (adding or eliminating counties/parishes) and then issue it to the public. After adjusting the watch, the NWFO will let the public know which counties are included by way of a Watch Redefining Statement. During the watch, the NWFO will keep the public informed on what is happening in the watch area and also let the public know when the watch has expired or been cancelled.
Total-Totals Index
A stability index and severe weather forecast tool, equal to the temperature at 850 mb plus the dew point at 850 mb, minus twice the temperature at 500 mb. The total-totals index is the arithmetic sum of two other indices: the Vertical Totals Index (temperature at 850 mb minus temperature at 500 mb) and the Cross Totals Index (dew point at 850 mb minus temperature at 500 mb). As with all stability indices there are no magic threshold values, but in general, values of less than 50 or greater than 55 are considered weak and strong indicators, respectively, of potential severe storm development.
Trade Winds
Persistent tropical winds that blow from the subtropical high pressure centers towards the equatorial low.
Transport Wind
The average wind over a specified period of time within a mixed layer near the surface of the earth.
Transverse Bands
Bands of clouds oriented perpendicular to the flow in which they are embedded. They often are seen best on satellite photographs. When observed at high levels (i.e., in cirrus formations), they may indicate severe or extreme turbulence. Transverse bands observed at low levels (called transverse rolls or T rolls) often indicate the presence of a temperature inversion (or cap) as well as directional shear in the low- to mid-level winds. These conditions often favor the development of strong to severe thunderstorms.
Triple Doppler
Since any wind has three components (say, in the x, y and z directions), and a single radar measures in only one direction (radial), a single radar cannot give the 3D winds everywhere it samples. However, if three different radars view a storm from three different locations, the 3 measured radial velocities can be transformed into the actual 3D wind field.
Tropical Advisory
Official information issued by tropical cyclone warning centers describing all tropical cyclone watches and warnings in effect along with details concerning tropical cyclone locations, intensity and movement, and precautions that should be taken. Advisories are also issued to describe: (a) tropical cyclones prior to issuance of watches and warnings and (b) subtropical cyclones.
Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch
One of three branches of the Tropical Prediction Center (TPC). It provides year-round products involving marine forecasting, aviation forecasts and warnings (SIGMETs), and surface analyses. The unit also provides satellite interpretation and satellite rainfall estimates for the international community. In addition, TAFB provides support to NHC through manpower and tropical cyclone intensity estimates from the Dvorak technique.
Tropical Cyclone Plan of the Day
A coordinated mission plan that tasks operational weather reconnaissance requirements during the next 1100 to 1100 UTC day or as required, describes reconnaissance flights committed to satisfy both operational and research requirements, and identifies possible reconnaissance requirements for the succeeding 24-hour period.
Tropical Cyclone Update
This brief statement is issued by the National Hurricane Center in lieu of or preceding special advisories to inform of significant changes in a tropical cyclone or the posting or cancellation of watches and warnings.
Tropical Depression
A tropical cyclone in which the maximum 1-minute sustained surface wind is 33 knots (38 mph) or less.
Tropical Disturbance
A discrete tropical weather system of apparently organized convection--generally 100 to 300 mi in diameter--originating in the tropics or subtropics, having a nonfrontal migratory character and maintaining its identity for 24 hours or more. It may or may not be associated with a detectable perturbation of the wind field.
Tropical Weather Discussion
These messages are issued 4 times daily by the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch (TAFB) to describe significant synoptic weather features in the tropics. One message will cover the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and the Atlantic between the equator and 32 degrees North and east of 140 degrees West. Plain language is used in these discussions.
True Wind
Wind relative to a fixed point on the earth. Wind relative to a moving point is called APPARENT or RELATIVE WIND.
Tsunami Advisory
For products of the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC - Pacific (except Alaska, British Columbia and Western States) Hawaii, Caribbean (except Puerto Rico, Virgin Is.), Indian Ocean): The third highest level of tsunami alert. Advisories are issued to coastal populations within areas not currently in either warning or watch status when a tsunami warning has been issued for another region of the same ocean. An Advisory indicates that an area is either outside the current warning and watch regions or that the tsunami poses no danger to that area. The Center will continue to monitor the event, issuing updates at least hourly. As conditions warrant, the Advisory will either be continued, upgraded to a watch or warning, or ended. For products of the West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (WC/ATWC - Alaska, British Columbia and Western States, Canada, Eastern and Gulf States, Puerto Rico, U.S Virgin Islands): A tsunami advisory is issued due to the threat of a potential tsunami which may produce strong currents or waves dangerous to those in or near the water. Coastal regions historically prone to damage due to strong currents induced by tsunamis are at the greatest risk. The threat may continue for several hours after the arrival of the initial wave, but significant widespread inundation is not expected for areas under an advisory. Appropriate actions to be taken by local officials may include closing beaches, evacuating harbors and marinas, and the repositioning of ships to deep waters when there is time to safely do so. Advisories are normally updated to continue the advisory, expand/contract affected areas, upgrade to a warning, or cancel the advisory.
Turbidity
The thickness or opaqueness of water caused by the suspension of matter. The turbidity of rivers and lakes increases after a rainfall.
TWD
Toward
Ultraviolet Index
This index provides important information to help you plan your outdoor activities in ways that prevent overexposure to the sun's rays. It was designed by the National Weather Service (NWS) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Unlike some countries' indices, the United States UV Index is not based upon surface observations. Rather, it is computed using forecasted ozone levels, a computer model that relates ozone levels to UV incidence on the ground, forecasted cloud amounts, and the elevation of the forecast cities. The calculation starts with measurements of current total ozone amounts for the entire globe, obtained via two satellites operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These data are then used to produce a forecast of ozone levels for the next day at various points around the country.

CategoryUV IndexTime to BurnActions to Take
Minimal0 - 260 min. +Apply SPF sunscreen.
Low3 - 445 min.Apply SPF sunscreen, wear a hat.
Moderate5 - 630 min.Apply SPF 15, wear a hat.
High7 - 915 - 24 min.Apply SPF 15 to 30, wear a hat and sunglasses. Limit midday exposure.
Very High10+10 min.Apply SPF 30; wear a hat, sunglasses, and protective clothing; limit midday exposure.
Ultraviolet Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength than visible radiation but longer than x-rays.
Undercurrent
In hydrologic terms, a current below the upper currents or surface of a fluid body.
Underflow
The lateral motion of water through the upper layers until it enters a stream channel. This usually takes longer to reach stream channels than runoff. This also called subsurface storm flow.
Undersun
An optical effect seen by an observer above a cloud deck when looking toward the sun, as sunlight is reflected upwards off the faces of ice crystals in the cloud deck. [Also known as subsun.]
Undertow
A relatively small-scale surf-zone current moving away from the beach. Rip currents form as waves disperse along the beach causing water to become trapped between the beach and a sandbar or other underwater feature. The water converges into a narrow, river-like channel moving away from the shore at high speed.
Unimodal
A distribution having only one localized maximum, i.e., only one peak.
Unit Hydrograph
The discharge hydrograph from one inch of surface runoff distributed uniformly over the entire basin for a given time period
United States Drought Monitor (USDM)
A multi-agency product that defines and highlights the severity of drought across the ConUS and OConUS based on expert interpretation of a multitude of indices.
Universal Geographic Code
(UGC) - UGC's, (e.g. ANZ300 for Western Long Island Sound) are used in many National Weather Service text products to provide geographical information. This allows users easy automated processing and redistribution of the information. More specifically, the purpose of the UGC are to specify the affected geographic area of the event, typically by state, county (or parish), or unique NWS zone (land and marine). The only exception to the above is to define the weather synopsis part of certain marine products.
Unsettled
In meteorological use: A colloquial term used to describe a condition in the atmosphere conducive to precipitation. This term typically is associated with the passage of surface or upper level low pressure systems, fronts or other phenomenon when precipitation expected.

In solar-terrestrial use: With regard to geomagnetic levels, a descriptive word specifically meaning that 8 is less than or equal to the Ap Index which is less than or equal to 15.
Up-valley Wind
A diurnal thermally driven flow directed up a valley's axis, usually occurring during daytime; part of the along-valley wind system.
Updraft
A small-scale current of rising air. If the air is sufficiently moist, then the moisture condenses to become a cumulus cloud or an individual tower of a towering cumulus or Cb.
Upper Level Disturbance
A disturbance in the upper atmospheric flow pattern which is usually associated with clouds and precipitation. This disturbance is characterized by distinct cyclonic flow, a pocket of cold air, and sometimes a jet streak. These features make the air aloft more unstable and conducive to clouds and precipitation.
Urban and Small Stream Flood Advisory
This advisory alerts the public to flooding which is generally only an inconvenience (not life-threatening) to those living in the affected area. Issued when heavy rain will cause flooding of streets and low-lying places in urban areas. Also used if small rural or urban streams are expected to reach or exceed bankfull. Some damage to homes or roads could occur.
Urban and Small Stream Flooding
Flooding of small streams, streets, and low-lying areas, such as railroad underpasses and urban storm drains. This type of flooding is mainly an inconvenience and is generally not life threatening nor is it significantly damaging to property.
Urban Flash Flood Guidance
A specific type of flash flood guidance which estimates the average amount of rain needed over an urban area during a specified period of time to initiate flooding on small, ungaged streams in the urban area.
Urban Flooding
Flooding of streets, underpasses, low lying areas, or storm drains. This type of flooding is mainly an inconvenience and is generally not life threatening.
Urban Heat Island
The increased air temperatures in urban areas in contrast to cooler surrounding rural areas.
UV Index
Ultraviolet Index- This index provides important information to help you plan your outdoor activities in ways that prevent overexposure to the sun's rays. It was designed by the National Weather Service (NWS) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Unlike some countries' indices, the United States UV Index is not based upon surface observations. Rather, it is computed using forecasted ozone levels, a computer model that relates ozone levels to UV incidence on the ground, forecasted cloud amounts, and the elevation of the forecast cities. The calculation starts with measurements of current total ozone amounts for the entire globe, obtained via two satellites operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These data are then used to produce a forecast of ozone levels for the next day at various points around the country.

CategoryUV IndexTime to BurnActions to Take
Minimal0 - 260 min. +Apply SPF sunscreen.
Low3 - 445 min.Apply SPF sunscreen, wear a hat.
Moderate5 - 630 min.Apply SPF 15, wear a hat.
High7 - 915 - 24 min.Apply SPF 15 to 30, wear a hat and sunglasses. Limit midday exposure.
Very High10+10 min.Apply SPF 30; wear a hat, sunglasses, and protective clothing; limit midday exposure.
UWNDS
Upper Winds
VAD
Velocity Azimuth Display
VAD Wind Profile
A radar plot of horizontal winds, derived from VAD data, as a function of height above a Doppler Radar. The display is plotted with height as the vertical axis and time as the horizontal axis (a so-called time-height display), which then depicts the change in wind with time at various heights. This display is useful for observing local changes in vertical wind shear, such as backing of low-level winds, increases in speed shear, and development or evolution of nearby jet streams (including low-level jets). This product often is referred to erroneously as a VAD.
Vadose Zone
The locus of points just above the water table where soil pores may either contain air or water. This is also called the zone of aeration
VALDRIFT
An air pollution transport and diffusion model developed to determine pesticide drift from aerial spraying operations in valleys.
Valid Time
The period of time during which a forecast or warning, until it is updated or superseded by a new forecast issuance, is in effect.
Valid Time Event Code
(VTEC) - The Valid Time Event Code (VTEC) always is used in conjunction with, and provides supplementary information to, the Universal Geographic Code (UGC), to further aid in the automated delivery of National Weather Service text products to users. The VTEC is included in many event driven or non-routine products and in some routine Marine forecasts. The VTEC provides information on the event, while the UGC describes the affected geographic area.
Variable Wind
Same as Variable Wind Direction; a condition when
(1) the wind direction fluctuates by 60° or more during the 2-minute evaluation period and the wind speed is greater than 6 knots; or
(2) the direction is variable and the wind speed is less than 6 knots.
Variable Wind Direction
A condition when
(1) the wind direction fluctuates by 60° or more during the 2-minute evaluation period and the wind speed is greater than 6 knots; or
(2) the direction is variable and the wind speed is less than 6 knots.
Veering Winds
Winds which shift in a clockwise direction with time at a given location (e.g., from southerly to westerly), or which change direction in a clockwise sense with height (e.g., southeasterly at the surface turning to southwesterly aloft). The latter example is a form of directional shear which is important for tornado formation. Compare with backing winds.
Velocity Azimuth Display
A WSR 88-D product which shows the radar derived wind speeds at various heights. This radar product shows the wind speeds from 2,000 to 55,000 feet above the ground. VAD and EVAD (Extended VAD) are methods of guessing the large scale two-dimensional winds from one-dimensional radial velocity data. They are essentially multivariate regressions which fit a simple, large scale wind model to the observed winds. EVAD also estimates the large scale horizontal divergence and particle fall speed. See VWP.
Ventilation Index
Product of the mixing depth and transport wind speed, a measure of the potential of the atmosphere to disperse airborne pollutants from a stationary source. Sometimes referred to as a Clearing Index.
Vertical Wind Shear
the change in the wind's direction and speed with height. This is a critical factor in determining whether severe thunderstorms will develop.
Vertically Stacked System
A low-pressure system, usually a closed low or cutoff low, which is not tilted with height, i.e., located similarly at all levels of the atmosphere. Such systems typically are weakening and are slow-moving, and are less likely to produce severe weather than tilted systems. However, cold pools aloft associated with vertically-stacked systems may enhance instability enough to produce severe weather.
Very Windy
30 to 40 mph winds.
Visible Infra-Red Imaging Radiometer (VIIRS)
A medium-resolution sensor flown aboard the NOAA-20 and Suomi-NP satellites.
VMD
Volume median diameter. A statistical measure of the average droplet size in a spray cloud, such that fifty percent of the volume of sprayed material is composed of droplets smaller in diameter than the VMD.
Wall Cloud
A localized, persistent, often abrupt lowering from a rain-free base. Wall clouds can range from a fraction of a mile up to nearly five miles in diameter, and normally are found on the south or southwest (inflow) side of the thunderstorm. When seen from within several miles, many wall clouds exhibit rapid upward motion and cyclonic rotation.

However, not all wall clouds rotate. Rotating wall clouds usually develop before strong or violent tornadoes, by anywhere from a few minutes up to nearly an hour. Wall clouds should be monitored visually for signs of persistent, sustained rotation and/or rapid vertical motion.

"Wall cloud" also is used occasionally in tropical meteorology to describe the inner cloud wall surrounding the eye of a tropical cyclone, but the proper term for this feature is eyewall.
Warm Advection
Transport of warm air into an area by horizontal winds. Low-level warm advection sometimes is referred to (erroneously) as overrunning. Although the two terms are not properly interchangeable, both imply the presence of lifting in low levels.
Wasatch Wind
A strong easterly wind blowing out of the mouths of the canyons of the Wasatch Mountains onto the plains of Utah. Also called canyon wind.
Watch Redefining Statement
This product tells the public which counties/parishes are included in the watch. This is done not only by writing them all out, but by using the county FIPS codes in the Header of the product. It is issued by the local National Weather Service Forecast Office (WFO).
Watershed
Land area from which water drains toward a common watercourse in a natural basin.
Wave Period
Time, in seconds, between the passage of consecutive wave crests past a fixed point.
WBND
Westbound
WDIR
On a buoy report, wind direction (the direction the wind is coming from in degrees clockwise from true N) during the same period used for WSPD.
WDLY
Widely
WDSPRD
Widespread
Wedge Tornado
Slang for a large tornado with a condensation funnel that is at least as wide (horizontally) at the ground as it is tall (vertically) from the ground to cloud base. The term "wedge" often is used somewhat loosely to describe any large tornado. However, not every large tornado is a wedge. A true wedge tornado, with a funnel at least as wide at the ground as it is tall, is very rare.

Wedges often appear with violent tornadoes (F4 or F5 on the Fujita Scale), but many documented wedges have been rated lower. And some violent tornadoes may not appear as wedges (e.g., Xenia, OH on 3 April 1974, which was rated F5 but appeared only as a series of suction vortices without a central condensation funnel). Whether or not a tornado achieves "wedge" status depends on several factors other than intensity - in particular, the height of the environmental cloud base and the availability of moisture below cloud base. Therefore, spotters should not estimate wind speeds or F-scale ratings based on visual appearance alone. However, it generally is safe to assume that most (if not all) wedges have the potential to produce strong (F2/F3) or violent (F4/F5) damage.
West African Disturbance Line
A line of convection about 300 miles long, similar to a squall line. It forms over west Africa north of the equator and south of 15 degrees North latitude. It moves faster than an Easterly Wave between 20 and 40 mph. They move off the African coast every 4 to 5 days mainly in the summer. Some reach the American tropics and a few develop into tropical cyclones.
Wet Floodproofing
In hydrologic terms, an approach to floodproofing which usually is a last resort. Flood waters are intentionally allowed into the building to minimize water pressure on the structure. Wet Floodproofing can include moving a few valueable items to a higher place or completely rebuilding the floodable area. Wet floodproofing has an advantage over other approaches: no matter how little is done, flood damage will be reduced. Thousands of dollars in damage can be avoided just by moving furniture and appliances out of the flood-prone area.
Wetland
In hydrologic terms, an area that is regularly wet or flooded and has a water table that stands at or above the land surface for at least part of the year.
Whirlwind
A small, rotating column of air; may be visible as a dust devil.
Widespread
Areal coverage of non-measurable, non-convective weather and/or restrictions to visibility affecting more than 50 percent of a forecast zone(s).
Wildfire
Any free burning uncontainable wildland fire not prescribed for the area which consumes the natural fuels and spreads in response to its environment.
Wildlands
Any nonurbanized land not under extensive agricultural cultivation, e.g., forests, grasslands, rangelands.
Wind
The horizontal motion of the air past a given point. Winds begin with differences in air pressures. Pressure that's higher at one place than another sets up a force pushing from the high toward the low pressure. The greater the difference in pressures, the stronger the force. The distance between the area of high pressure and the area of low pressure also determines how fast the moving air is accelerated. Meteorologists refer to the force that starts the wind flowing as the "pressure gradient force." High and low pressure are relative. There's no set number that divides high and low pressure. Wind is used to describe the prevailing direction from which the wind is blowing with the speed given usually in miles per hour or knots.
Wind Advisory
Sustained winds 25 to 39 mph and/or gusts to 57 mph. Issuance is normally site specific. However, winds of this magnitude occurring over an area that frequently experiences such winds
Wind Chill
Reference to the Wind Chill Factor; increased wind speeds accelerate heat loss from exposed skin, and the wind chill is a measure of this effect. No specific rules exist for determining when wind chill becomes dangerous. As a general rule, the threshold for potentially dangerous wind chill conditions is about -20°F.
Wind Chill Advisory
The National Weather Service issues this product when the wind chill could be life threatening if action is not taken. The criteria for this warning varies from state to state.
Wind Chill Factor
Increased wind speeds accelerate heat loss from exposed skin. No specific rules exist for determining when wind chill becomes dangerous. As a general rule, the threshold for potentially dangerous wind chill conditions is about -20°F.
Wind Chill Warning
The National Weather Service issues this product when the wind chill is life threatening. The criteria for this warning varies from state to state.
Wind Couplet
An area on the radar display where two maximum wind speeds are blowing in opposite directions.
Wind Direction
The true direction from which the wind is blowing at a given location (i.e., wind blowing from the north to the south is a north wind). It is normally measured in tens of degrees from 10 degrees clockwise through 360 degrees. North is 360 degrees. A wind direction of 0 degrees is only used when wind is calm.
Wind Field
The three-dimensional spatial pattern of winds.
Wind Gust
Rapid fluctuations in the wind speed with a variation of 10 knots or more between peaks and lulls. The speed of the gust will be the maximum instantaneous wind speed.
Wind Radii
Term used in National Weather Tropical Cyclone Forecast Advisory products (TCM). Wind radii are the largest radii of that wind speed found in that quadrant. Quadrants are defined as NE (0-90), SE (90-180), SW (180-270), and NW (270-0). As an example, given maximum 34 knot radii to 150 nm at 0 degrees, 90 at 120 degrees, and 40 nm at 260 degrees, the following line would be carried in the forecast/advisory: 150NE 90SE 40SW 150NW.
Wind Rose
A diagram, for a given locality or area, showing the frequency and strength of the wind from various directions.
Wind Shear
The rate at which wind velocity changes from point to point in a given direction (as, vertically). The shear can be speed shear (where speed changes between the two points, but not direction), direction shear (where direction changes between the two points, but not speed) or a combination of the two.
Wind Shear Profile
The change in wind speed and/or direction usually in the vertical. The characteristics of the wind shear profile are of critical importance in determining the potential for and type of severe weather.
Wind Shift
A change in wind direction of 45 degrees or more in less than 15 minutes with sustained wind speeds of 10 knots or more throughout the wind shift.
Wind Shift Line
A long, but narrow axis across which the winds change direction (usually veer).
Wind Sock
A tapered fabric shaped like a cone that indicates wind direction by pointing away from the wind. It is also called a "wind cone."
Wind Speed
The rate at which air is moving horizontally past a given point. It may be a 2-minute average speed (reported as wind speed) or an instantaneous speed (reported as a peak wind speed, wind gust, or squall).
Wind Waves
Local, short period waves generated from the action of wind on the water surface (as opposed to swell). Commonly referred to as waves. In a National Weather Service Coastal Marine Forecast or Offshore Forecast, wind waves are used when swells are described in the forecast.
or
Waves generated by the local wind blowing at the time of observation.
Windward
The side toward the wind. Compare with leeward.
Windy
20 to 30 mph winds.
Winter Weather Advisory
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when a low pressure system produces a combination of winter weather (snow, freezing rain, sleet, etc.) that present a hazard, but does not meet warning criteria.
WND
Wind
WSPD
On a buoy report, the wind speed (m/s) averaged over an eight-minute period for buoys and a two-minute period for land stations. Reported Hourly.
WSR-88D
Weather Surveillance Radar - 1988 Doppler; NEXRAD unit.
WSR-88D System
The summation of all hardware, software, facilities, communications, logistics, staffing, training, operations, and procedures specifically associated with the collection, processing, analysis, dissemination and application of data from the WSR-88D unit.
X-Band
A frequency band of microwave radiation in which radars operate.
X-Ray Background
In solar-terrestrial terms, a daily average background X-ray flux in the 1 to 8 angstrom range. It is a midday minimum designed to reduce the effects of flares.
XCITED
Excited
YDA
Yesterday
Zero Datum
In hydrologic terms, a reference "zero" elevation for a stream or river gage. This "zero" can be referenced (usually within ten feet of the bottom of the channel) to mean sea level, or to any other recognized datum.
Zoned Embankment Dam
In hydrologic terms, an embankment dam which is comprised of zones of selected materials having different degrees of porosity, permeability and density.

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